THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


RIVERSIDE  TEXTBOOKS 

IN  EDUCATION 
EDITED  BY  ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR   OF   EDUCATION 
LELAND  STANFORD  JUNIOR  UNIVERSITY 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF 
INSTRUCTION 


HUBERT  WILBUR 


PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION  AND  DIRECTOR 

OF  TEACHER  TRAINING,  OHIO 

WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

BOSTON    NEW  YORK    CHICAGO    SAN  FRANCISCO 

<Ebc  SUtitrfiDe  ptrtf  {Cambridge 


COPYRIGHT,  1930,  BY  HUBERT  WILBUR  NUTT 
ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


Vfet  »ibtr*(br 

CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
PRINTED  IN  TUB  U.  S.  A. 


Ed./PsycH* 
Library 


%0 


TO 

THE  TEACHING  PROFESSION 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

THE  following  discussion  and  analysis  of  the  elements 
of  the  supervisory  process,  and  statement  of  the  tech- 
nique and  professional  standards  for  the  supervision  of 
instruction,  will  be  read  with  interest  by  those  who  are 
concerned  with  the  work  of  school  supervision.  The 
author  of  the  volume  is  a  school  supervisor  of  experi- 
ence, who  has  been  unusually  successful  in  training 
young  people  for  the  teaching  service.  Training  nov- 
ices for  success  in  teaching  is  even  more  difficult  work 
than  that  of  a  school  principal  or  superintendent  in 
initiating  new  or  poorly  experienced  teachers  into  the 
work  of  a  city-school  system.  Out  of  his  experience  he 
has  worked  out  the  following  analytical  discussion  of 
the  principles  underlying  classroom  supervision,  and 
the  devices  and  technique  which  should,  and  which 
should  not  be  employed. 

The  fundamental  purpose  of  all  school  supervision 
is  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  classroom  teacher. 
School  supervision  is  worthy  of  the  name  only  when 
it  results  in  such  an  increase.  Supervisors  who  con- 
ceive their  function  to  be  that  of  an  inspector,  and  who 
go  about  checking  up  work  accomplished  and  locating 
those  who  do  not  follow  directions,  are  worth  little. 


viii  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

Such  service  is  unintelligent  service,  and  requires  but 
little  preparation  or  thought.  To  be  constructively 
critical  and  helpful,  though,  requires  a  good  under- 
standing of  both  the  purposes  and  the  technique  of 
supervision;  and  the  fundamental  principles  and  meth- 
ods underlying  such  helpful  and  constructive  service 
the  author  of  the  present  volume  has  here  set  forth. 

The  treatise  should  be  read  with  interest  and  profit 
by  city-school  supervisors  and  training-school  direc- 
tors generally,  and  should  find  a  place  for  itself  in 
training-school  work. 

ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBEBLET 

March  31,  1920 


PREFACE 

THE  rapid  growth  of  training  schools  for  the  training  of 
teachers,  and  the  development  of  supervision  of  actual 
teaching  in  the  public  schools,  has  emphasized  more  and 
more  every  year  the  necessity  for  training  supervisors  spe- 
cifically for  the  "job"  of  supervision.  Moreover,  skilled 
supervision  on  the  part  of  the  principals  and  superintendents 
is  becoming  a  most  important  factor  in  their  success.  Train- 
ing in  supervision  cannot  be  adequately  accomplished  until 
a  definite  body  of  psychological  and  pedagogical  principles 
that  apply  specifically  to  the  problems  of  supervision  has 
been  discovered  and  formulated.  These  principles  must  be 
discovered  by  experimentation,  and  by  analysis  of  experi- 
ences that  have  been  accumulated  in  supervising  teachers  in 
training  and  teachers  in  regular  service.  The  writer  under- 
took, about  two  years  ago,  to  formulate  some  of  the  princi- 
ples that  seem  valid  on  the  basis  of  experimentation  and 
extended  experience.  The  results  of  this  undertaking  were 
set  forth  in  A  Handbook  for  Supervisors  of  Student- Teachers. 
This  handbook,  which  is  little  more  than  an  outline  or  brief, 
was  published  by  the  State  Printer  of  Kansas  and  as  a  bulle- 
tin of  the  School  of  Education  of  the  University.  It  was 
intended  not  only  for  the  supervisors  of  the  Oread  Training 
School,  but  also  for  supervisors,  principals,  and  superin- 
tendents in  the  State,  who  might  find  it  suggestive  and 
helpful. 

The  kindly  consideration  that  this  booklet  received  and 
the  many  requests  for  supplementary  discussion-material 
based  on  the  outline  led  the  writer  to  believe  that  a  some- 
what detailed  formulation  and  discussion  of  the  principles 


x  PREFACE 

set  forth  might  prove  helpful  to  those  who  are  interested  in 
the  specific  undertaking  of  training  supervisors,  and  also  be 
of  direct  service  to  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  actual  work 
of  supervision.  The  purpose,  therefore,  of  this  book  is  to 
set  forth  such  a  formulation  of  the  problems  and  principles 
of  supervision  as  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  classroom  discus- 
sions, individual  study,  and  experimentation.  If  the  book 
proves  serviceable  in  contributing  material  ready-to-hand 
for  intensive  study  and  discussion  and  in  making  fruitful 
suggestions,  the  writer  feels  that  his  efforts  will  not  have 
been  in  vain. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  the  supervisors  of  the  Oread 
Training  School  for  critical  discussions  of  the  material  and 
helpful  suggestions.  He  is  also  greatly  indebted  to  Dean 
F.  J.  Kelly,  Professor  R.  E.  Carter,  and  other  colleagues  for 
critical  reading  of  the  manuscript  and  helpful  suggestions  as 
to  form  and  content. 

H.  W.  NUTT 
UNIVERSITY  OF  KANSAS 

January  15,  1920 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER!.  INTRODUCTION 

1.  The  need  for  trained  supervisors  —  Composition  of  the 
teaching  force  —  Lack  of  professional  training  —  Need  for  pro- 
fessional supervision  —  The  training  school  and  supervision  — 
Administrators  need  supervisory  training. 

2.  Is  there  danger  of  formalism?  —  The  formality  of  technique 
—  Transforming  technique  into  habits  —  Why  teachers  fail  in  us- 
ing technique  —  Is  there  a  formal  stage  in  all  training?  —  Train- 
ing and  attaining  efficiency  —  Meaning  of  the  formal  period  — 
Supervisors,  too,  must  master  technique  —  Formalism  eliminated 
by  mastery. 

3.  The  problem  of  training  supervisors  —  Two  questions  in- 
volved —  The  plan  of  this  book  —  The  greatest  weakness  of  su- 
pervision —  Details  vs.  generalities  —  Chapter  summary. 


PART  I 
THE  JOB  OF  SUPERVISION 

CHAPTER  II.  SUPERVISING  ACTIVITIES 23 

Laying  the  basis  for  cooperative  teaching  —  Selecting  and  or- 
ganizing the  subject-matter  of  courses  —  Teaching  for  purposes 
of  experimentation  and  demonstration  —  Directing  systematic 
observation  of  expert  and  inexpert  teaching  performances  —  Di- 
recting teaching  activities  —  Checking  up  pupil  progress  —  Meas- 
uring progress  and  efficiency  of  teacher  —  Measuring  the  effi- 
ciency of  supervision  —  The  supervisory  job  of  the  administra- 
tor —  Chapter  summary  —  Class  exercises. 

PART  H 

PRINCIPLES  UNDERLYING  THE  SUPERVISION  OF 
INSTRUCTION 

SECTION  A 

SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

CHAPTER  III.  THE  FIRST  PRINCIPLE  OF  METHOD      ...    35 

Necessity  for  common  knowledge  —  Teaching  a  cooperative 
enterprise  —  Chapter  summary  —  Class  exercises. 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IV.  PARTICULAR  BASIS  FOR  COOPERATIVE  TEACHING 
IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 88 

1.  The  elementary  school  as  an  institution  —  The  purpose  of 
the  elementary  school  —  The  place  of  the  elementary  school  — 
Curriculum  of  the  elementary  school. 

2.  Pupils  of  the  elementary  school  —  Dominant  physiological 
characteristics  —  Psychological     characteristics  —  Relation    of 
these  characteristics  to  schoolroom  procedure  —  Social  status 
of  children  —  Chapter  summary. —  Class  exercises. 

CHAPTER  V.  PARTICULAR  BASIS  FOR  COOPERATIVE  TEACHING 
IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL     ........    45 

1.  The   secondary  school  —  The  purpose  of  the  secondary 
school  —  The  purpose  stated  negatively  —  The  place  of  the 
secondary  school  —  The  beginning  stage  of  adolescence  —  The 
second  period  of  adolescent  development  —  The  third  stage  of 
adolescence  —  The  curriculum  —  The  psychological  approach  — 
The  purpose  of  the  studies  —  Thinking  in  terms  of  the  student. 

2.  The  pupils  of  the  secondary  school  —  Traits  and  tendencies 

—  Physiological  traits  —  Psychological  characteristics  —  Social 
status  and  outlook  —  Physical  conditions  and  adolescent  devel- 
opment —  Adolescent    embarrassments  —  Other    physiological 
disturbances  —  Adolescence  and  habit  formation  —  Instinctive 
backgrounds  —  Mental  maturing  through  experiences  —  Erratic 
behavior;  rules  of  procedure  —  Pupil  to  choose  freely  —  Door  of 
opportunity  not  closed  —  Teacher  not  to  worry  —  Teacher  and 
supervisor  in  agreement  —  Importance  of  frank  dealings  —  Ado- 
lescence and  the  religious  instinct  —  Catching  interests  at  the 
crest  —  Keep  the  pupil  in  the  center  of  the  stage  —  School  should 
provide    social    opportunities  —  Socializing    subject-matter  — 
Make  the  social  situations  accurate  and  true  —  Chapter  sum- 
mary —  Class  exercises. 

CHAPTER  VI.  GENERAL  BASIS  FOR  COOPERATIVE  TEACHING 
m  EITHER  ELEMENTARY  OR  SECONDARY  SCHOOL    ...    75 
Other  necessary  common  ground  —  The  principles  of  method 

—  Problems  in  teaching  and  method  —  Devices  and  their  use  — 
Teaching  technique  —  Agreements  as  to  teaching  procedure  — 
Teaching  standards  —  Proper  teaching  relationships  —  The  pur- 
pose of  supervision  —  Chapter  summary  —  Class  exercises. 

CHAPTER  VII.  OTHER   PRINCIPLES    UNDERLYING   SUPERVI- 
SORY METHOD 83 

1.  The  second  principle  of  method  —  Anticipatory  teaching  — 
Value  of  the  anticipatory  process  —  Observation  of  teaching  — 


CONTENTS  xiii 

Actual  instruction  —  Directed  teaching  —  Practice  to  form  right 
habits  —  Teaching  habits  to  be  made  automatic. 

2.  The  third  principle  of  method  —  Breaking  up  incorrect 
habits  —  Finding  out  things  for  and  by  one's  self  —  Application  to 
teacher  training  —  Breaking  bad  habits;  training  schools  ta.  city 
schools. 

8.  The  fourth  principle  of  method  —  Developing  initiative  and 
independence  —  Summary  of  the  section  —  Class  exercises  — - 
Selected  references  for  Section  A. 

SECTION  B 
DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

CHAPTER  Vllt.  PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN  THE  SELECTION  OP 
DEVICES 97 

Devices  should  be  economical  —  General  instructions  to  senior 
teachers  —  Instructions  to  regular  teachers  —  Saving  the  time 
of  the  teacher  —  Conservation  of  materials  —  Economy  a  rela- 
tive matter  —  Devices  should  be  effective  —  Devices  should  be 
usable  —  Devices  should  not  be  too  numerous  —  Devices  should 
not  be  too  meager  —  Devices  should  bear  a  logical  relation  to  the 
end  they  are  to  aid  in  accomplishing  —  Devices  should  be  a 
means  —  Devices  should  be  classified  —  Chapter  summary  — 
Class  exercises. 

CHAPTER  IX.  DEVICES  THAT  ILLUSTRATE  PRINCIPLE  ONE  OF 
METHOD 113 

The  problem  —  Facts  as  to  educational  situations  —  Value  of 
printed  forms  —  Section  summary  —  Class  exercises. 

CHAPTER  X.  DEVICES   THAT  ILLUSTRATE  THE   REMAINING 

PRINCIPLES  OF  METHOD 117 

I.  THE  SELECTION  AND  ORGANIZATION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 

1.  The  courses  and  instruction  —  Subject-matter  in  perma- 
nent form  —  Purpose  for  which  the  subject  was  organized  —  Pur- 
pose for  which  taught  —  Changes  going  on  in  the  subject  —  Unit 
of  credit  —  Range  of  subject-matter  to  be  covered  —  Content 
and  formal  subject-matter  in  course  —  Essential  facts  and  prin- 
ciples to  be  mastered  —  Body  of  habits  to  result  from  study  — 
Prerequisites  —  Sequences  —  Divisions  of  course  —  Class  pe- 
riods —  Outside  preparation  —  Laboratory  studies  —  Class  of 
pupils  for  whom  pitched  —  Class  given  full  credit  —  Items  in 
pupil  records  —  Range  of  marks  —  Material  to  be  covered  in 
each  part  of  course. 


xiv  CONTENTS 

2.  Textbooks  and  their  use  —  Instructions  as  to  textbooks  — 
Instructions  to  teachers  as  to  their  use  —  Relative  emphasis  of 
parts  —  Relative  time  to  presentation  and  drill  —  Sources  of 
supplementary  material  —  Notebooks  and  other  necessary  ma- 
terial —  Specimen  assignments  and  reports  —  Chapter  summary 

—  Class  exercises. 

CHAPTER  XI.  DEVICES  THAT  ILLUSTRATE  THE  REMAINING 
PRINCIPLES  OF  METHOD  (continued) 138 

II.  DEMONSTBATION  TEACHING  AND  DIRECTED  OBSERVATION 

1.  Demonstration  teaching  —  The  purpose  —  Aim  of  the  les- 
son to  be  seen  —  Taking  notes  —  Critical  discussion  afterward 

—  Examples  of  the  process  —  Typical  outlines  —  Section  sum- 
mary —  Class  exercises. 

2.  Directed  observation  of  teaching  —  Preliminary  observa- 
tion —  Critical  observation  —  Observation  assignments  —  Two 
plans  for  this  assignment  —  Critical  evaluation  —  Judgment- 
forming  —  Use  of  the  assignment  —  Typical  assignments  —  Pur- 
pose and  use  of  these  observation  assignments. 

3.  Observation  to  evaluate  teaching  —  Prerequisites  for  this 
type  of  observation  —  Evaluation  outline  —  Use  of  this  type  of 
observation  —  Section  summary  —  Class  exercises. 

4.  Emergency  demonstration  teaching  —  Use  and  purpose  of 
this  —  Examples  of  —  Situations  that  justify  supervisory  inter- 
ference —  Section  summary  —  Class  exercises. 

CHAPTER  XII.  DEVICES  THAT  ILLUSTRATE  THE  REMAINING 
PRINCIPLES  OF  METHOD  (contimted) 163 

III.  DIRECTED  TEACHING  AND  SUPERVISED  STUDY 

1.  Directed  teaching  —  What  this  involves  —  Outline  for  — 
Choice  of  specific  habits  of  skill  —  Definite  detailed  lesson  plans 

—  Differences  between  teachers  —  The  requirements  in  making 
lesson  plans  —  Weekly  lesson  plans  —  Forms  for  —  Daily  lesson 
plans  —  Value  of  these  —  Do  not  lead  to  mechanical  work  — 
Clarify  thinking  for  the  beginner  —  Relative  recitation  time  to 
oral  and  written  work  —  Quizzes,  and  their  character  —  Prepara- 
tion of  lessons  —  Section  summary  —  Class  exercises. 

2.  Supervised  study  —  The  recitation  —  The  lesson  assign- 
ment—  The  recitation  demands  —  Study  during  the  recitation 

—  Supervised  study  period  —  Literature  on  study  —  Training  in 
use  of  tests  and  scales  —  Value  of  in  grading  and  promotion  — 
Standardized  tests  and  standardized  skills  —  Section  summary  — 
Class  exercises  —  Selected  references  for  Section  B. 


CONTENTS  xv 

SECTION  C 
TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

CHAPTER  XTTT-  PRINCIPLES  UNDERLYING  THE  SELECTION  OF 
TECHNIQUE 193 

The  purpose  of  supervision  —  Supervision  to  develop  inde- 
pendence and  efficiency  —  Constructive  work  a  necessity  — 
Supervisory  technique  not  unvarying  —  Technique  should  be 
economical  —  Chapter  summary  —  Class  exercises. 

CHAPTER  XTV.  SELECTED  FORMS  OF  TECHNIQUE      .      .      .  199 

Technique  and  devices. 

1.  Visiting  the  teacher  at  work  —  When  should  the  supervisor 
begin  visiting?  —  Answer  in  the  light  of  purpose  —  Entering  the 
classroom  —  Position  in  classroom  —  Leaving  the  room  —  Mak- 
ing comments  on  the  recitation  —  Delivering  the  written  notes. 

2.  Criticizing  the  work  of  the  teacher  —  Outline  form  of  notes 

—  Rate  of  procedure  in  supervision. 

3.  Conferences  and  checking  up  of  work  —  Types  of  confer- 
ences with  teachers  —  Checking  the  work  of  the  pupils  taught  — 
Assigning  grades  and  marks  to  pupils  —  Chapter  summary  — 
Class  exercises. 

CHAPTER  XV.  ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  THE  TEACHER     .  214 

Considerations  in  estimating  success  —  The  rating  of  teachers 

—  Suggested  outline  for  rating  of  —  General  scholarship  —  Special 
scholarship  —  Ability  to  express  thoughts  —  Teaching  ability  — 
Mastery  of  the  principles  of  method  —  Intelligence  and  resource- 
fulness —  Lesson  planning  and  skill  in  following  —  Skill  and  re- 
liability in  technique  —  Ability  to  secure  desired  results  —  Abil- 
ity to  test  and  grade  well  —  Ability  to  manage  and  discipline  — 
A  philosophy  of  school  discipline  —  Personal  appearance  —  Qual- 
ities  of   leadership  —  Professional    attitude  —  Type  of  school 
fitted  for  —  Type  of  community  6tted  for  —  The  critical  point 

—  Chapter  summary  —  Class  ext  rcises. 

CHAPTER  XVI.  ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION      .  231 

The  advent  of  supervision  —  Taking  stock  as  to  supervisory 
efficiency  —  Two  steps  involved  in  measuring  supervisory  effi- 
ciency. 

1.  The  principles  involved  in  measuring  supervisory  efficiency 

—  Set  up  definite  attainable  goals  —  Designate  definite  types  of 
objective  data  —  Secure  designated  types  of  data  —  Study  the 


xri  CONTENTS 

supervisory  performances  —  The  consideration  of  principles  gives 
psychological  perspective. 

2.  Programs  for  measuring  supervisory  efficiency. 

A.  Measuring  the  supervisory  activities  of  the  superin- 
tendent —  Limit  the  undertaking  to  tangible  goals  —  Defi- 
nite goals  suggested  —  Types  of  data  to  be  secured  — 
Sources  of  valid  data  —  Consideration  of  the  supervisory 
activities. 

B.  Measuring  the  supervisory  work  of  the  assistant  super- 
intendent, the  supervising  principal,  and  the  building  prin- 
cipal. 

c.  Measuring  the  supervisory  activities  of  the  special 
supervisor  —  Definite  goals  for  special  supervisor  —  Types 
of  evidence  that  indicate  the  efficiency  of  the  special  super- 
visor —  Sources  of  valid  evidences  —  Consideration  of 
special  supervisor's  performances. 

D.  Measuring  the  efficiency  of  supervisory  activities  car- 
ried on  by  the  supervisor  in  a  training  school  —  Goals  to  be 
attained  —  Types  of  evidence  of  supervisory  efficiency  — 
Sources  of  evidences  —  Devices  for  securing  objective  data 
—  Chapter  summary  —  Class  exercises. 

INDEX 267 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF 
INSTRUCTION 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

1.  The  need  for  trained  supervisors 

Composition  of  the  teaching  force.  A  critical  survey  of 
the  teaching  body  of  the  elementary  and  the  secondary 
schools  reveals  one  impressive,  outstanding  fact.  This  ob- 
vious fact  is  that  the  teaching  force  from  year  to  year  is 
a  rapidly  changing  group.  A  little  further  careful  study 
shows  that  the  force  is  not  only  changing  rapidly,  but  that 
it  is  to  a  great  extent  a  body  of  workers  with  limited  profes- 
sional training.  The  significance  of  these  two  important 
facts  is  best  seen  by  noting  the  make-up  of  the  teaching 
corps  of  almost  any  city  in  the  country. 

Every  city  of  any  size  finds  itself  each  year  with  a  number 
of  new  teachers  in  its  ranks.  These  new  teachers  are  of  at 
least  two,  and  very  often  three,  types.  The  first  type  is  the 
one  that  is  usually  thought  of  when  one  mentions  a  new 
teacher;  namely,  the  teacher  who  is  new  to  the  profession,  or 
who  is  just  beginning  to  teach.  The  second  type  is  the 
teacher  who  is  new  to  the  particular  system  of  schools  that 
one  might  be  surveying.  The  third  type  of  new  teacher  w 
the  one  who  is  new  to  teaching  some  particular  grade  or  to 
teaching  some  particular  subject  or  subjects  to  which  he  has 
been  assigned.  This  third  type  may  include  teachers  who 
are  old  to  the  profession  and  old  to  the  system  in  which  they 


4  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 

are  employed.  The  fact  that  a  considerable  number  of 
teachers  in  the  force  are  new  either  to  all  or  part  of  the  teach- 
ing situations  that  must  be  met  each  year,  gives  rise  to  the 
need  for  setting  up  some  agency  that  will  most  adequately 
direct  the  work  of  all  the  teachers  in  the  system,  so  as  to  im- 
prove the  efficiency  of  individuals  and  to  harmonize  the 
work  of  the  entire  body.  The  problem  of  harmonizing  the 
work  of  experienced  and  inexperienced  teachers,  who  are 
dealing  with  the  same  grades  or  lines  of  work  in  the  system, 
requires  quite  as  much  attention  to  the  old  teachers  as  it 
does  to  the  new. 

This  changing  from  year  to  year  in  personnel  of  the  teach- 
ing force  is  not  confined  to  the  ranks  of  city  and  town  teach- 
ers. It  is  also  true  of  the  county  corps  of  teachers  in  the 
rural  schools.  In  fact,  if  there  is  any  difference,  the  country 
schools  suffer  most  in  this  regard.  Many  teachers  who  are 
beginning  to  teach  for  the  first  tune  every  year  enter  the 
rural  schools.  Then,  too,  many  experienced  rural  teachers 
are  new  each  year  to  the  particular  schools  in  which  they 
teach.  This  fact  increases  the  demand  for  more  adequate 
supervision  of  the  teaching  forces  of  the  rural  schools,  and  is 
gradually  bringing  about  an  organization  of  counties  into 
systems  of  units  that  are  small  enough  to  make  adequate 
supervision  possible.  This  type  of  organization  gives  the 
county  superintendent  a  corps  of  supervisors  similar  to  that 
which  the  city  superintendent  has  who  provides  for  assistant 
superintendents  and  supervising  principals  for  the  different 
wards  in  his  system,  and  it  surmounts  one  of  the  chief  admin- 
istrative difficulties  that  has  so  seriously  handicapped  the 
rural  schools. 

Lack  of  professional  training.  There  is  still  another  very 
important  reason  why  supervision  of  teaching  is  an  absolute 
necessity  in  order  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching 
forces.  This  is  the  fact  that  out  of  the  large  number  of 


INTRODUCTION  5 

teachers  who  enter  the  ranks  each  year  a  very  great  many 
are  not  professionally  trained  in  any  true  sense  of  the  word. 
Moreover,  many  of  the  older,  experienced  teachers  who  are 
already  in  the  profession  have  not  been  sufficiently  trained 
for  their  work.  If,  therefore,  the  great  body  of  teachers, 
which  is  as  yet  so  largely  unprofessional,  is  to  become  more 
efficient  from  year  to  year,  as  it  should,  then  certainly  some 
supervising  agency  must  be  set  up  whereby  teachers  in  serv- 
ice may  be  systematically  trained  in  connection  with  the 
performance  of  their  regular  teaching  duties.  The  main 
effort  of  this  supervising  agency  should  necessarily  be  ex- 
pended on  that  part  of  the  teaching  force  which  is  newest  to 
the  profession  and  which  is  least  adequately  trained  pro- 
fessionally. The  attention  to  the  remainder  of  the  teaching 
body  should  be  simply  that  which  is  needed  hi  order  to  har- 
monize the  work  of  the  entire  group. 

If  an  adequate  supply  of  teachers  could  be  sufficiently 
educated  and  thoroughly  trained  professionally  before  en- 
tering the  ranks  of  the  profession,  then  there  would  be  little 
need  for  any  provision  for  such  thoroughgoing  supervision 
as  has  been  indicated  by  the  above  discussion.  Under  such 
ideal  conditions,  a  good  execution  of  the  administrative 
functions  that  superintendents  and  principals  should  be 
performing  would  no  doubt  be  all  that  would  be  necessary 
to  develop  and  maintain  any  school  organization  at  a  high 
standard  of  efficiency.  But  such  conditions  do  not  exist 
and  such  ideal  conditions  cannot  exist  for  years  to  come,  if 
they  can  ever  be  secured,  so  that  the  necessity  for  training 
supervisors  for  the  specific  job  of  supervising  the  teaching 
activities  of  teachers,  and  especially  beginning  teachers,  is  at 
hand  and  must  be  met  if  genuine  progress  in  professional 
efficiency  is  to  be  secured. 

Need  for  professional  supervision.  The  need  for  such 
supervision  as  has  been  referred  to  above  has  been  realized 


6  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 

to  a  considerable  extent  by  city  superintendents,  and  they 
have  made  a  fair  beginning  in  providing  for  the  supervision 
of  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools.  Rural  schools  in 
some  States  are  also  now  beginning  to  attack  this  vital  prob- 
lem. The  future  should  and  will  doubtless  see  a  rapid  de- 
velopment in  provision  for  adequate  supervision  of  elemen- 
tary city,  town,  and  rural  schools.  Meanwhile,  practically 
no  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  needs  for  supervision  of 
teaching  activities  in  the  high  schools.  The  rapid  growth 
of  high  schools  demands  a  large  increase  in  the  number  of 
teachers  every  year.  All  that  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the 
shifting,  unprofessional  character  of  the  teaching  body  as  a 
whole  can  be  said  truthfully  with  double  emphasis  in  respect 
to  the  body  of  high-school  teachers.  Normal  schools  have 
been  turning  out  a  goodly  number  of  elementary-school 
teachers  yearly  for  a  long  time,  and  these  teachers,  compared 
to  the  rank  and  file,  are  fairly  well  trained  professionally. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  attempt  to  train  high-school 
teachers  is  of  recent  date,  and  the  schools  that  are  equipped 
to  do  the  work  are  not  nearly  so  numerous  as  the  normal 
schools.  The  result  is  that  only  a  very  small  part  of  the 
number  of  high-school  teachers  who  begin  teaching  each 
year  has  been  anything  like  professionally  trained.  The 
high  schools  are  vastly  worse  off  than  the  elementary 
schools,  and  in  fact  as  bad  if  not  worse  off  than  the  rural 
schools,  when  it  comes  to  the  professional  efficiency  of  its 
teaching  force.  Therefore,  all  the  arguments  that  have 
been  advanced  for  the  need  for  making  adequate  provision 
for  the  supervision  of  the  teaching  activities  in  the  elemen- 
tary city  and  rural  schools  hold  most  emphatically  for  the 
high  school.  The  only  way  to  escape  the  necessity  of  mak- 
ing provision  for  thoroughgoing  supervision  of  high-school 
teachers  is  to  provide  enough  agencies  for  training  high- 
school  teachers  to  supply  an  adequate  number  of  trained 


INTRODUCTION  7 

teachers  to  keep  the  ranks  full.  The  day  when  that  ideal 
condition  will  be  reached  is  far  in  the  future;  hence  to-day 
must  take  care  of  itself  and  even  provide  for  the  many  to- 
morrows that  must  come  before  that  ideal  condition  can  be 
even  approximated. 

The  training  school  and  supervision.  The  discussion 
thus  far  has  been  directed  to  pointing  out  the  conditions  hi 
public  schools  that  make  necessary  the  development  of  a 
comprehensive  and  thoroughgoing  science  of  supervision  of 
instruction,  and  the  training  of  a  body  of  supervisors  who 
shall  be  competent  to  do  this  distinct  service  in  education. 
If,  as  has  been  suggested  above,  an  adequate  supply  of 
trained  teachers  could  be  provided  so  that  no  teacher  would 
ever  enter  the  ranks  of  active  service  until  thoroughly  com- 
petent to  teach,  independent  of  other  than  ordinary  admin- 
istrative guidance,  then  supervisors  for  public  schools  would 
be  for  the  most  part  unnecessary;  but  the  problem  and  the 
job  of  supervising  teachers  and  training  them  during  and 
through  their  actual  teaching  activities  would  merely  be 
concentrated  in  the  training  schools  organized  and  main- 
tained for  this  specific  purpose.  The  science  of  supervision 
would  remain  the  same  and  the  problems  that  the  supervisor 
must  solve  would  remain  the  same,  for  training  schools  must 
provide  genuine  teaching  situations  that  are  similar  to  those 
found  in  ordinary  public  schools.  The  training  school  is 
merely  a  setting-apart  of  a  limited  school  population  and 
facilities  for  the  purpose  of  tram  ing  teachers  instead  of  tak- 
ing the  whole  public  school  system  for  that  purpose. 

If  the  problem  of  training  teachers  could  be  adequately 
solved  through  the  establishment  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
training  schools,  then  the  problem  of  providing  supervisors 
who  are  competent  to  take  charge  of  the  supply  of  beginning 
teachers  and  develop  them  into  efficient  teachers  would  be 
greatly  simplified.  There  would  still  be  the  need,  however, 


8  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 

for  the  development  of  the  science  of  supervision,  and  the 
training  of  an  adequate  supply  of  supervisors  for  the  train- 
ing schools.  This  condition  regarding  a  supply  of  trained 
teachers  does  not  exist,  hence  beginning  teachers  must  be 
trained  in  both  the  public  schools  and  in  the  training  schools. 
Therefore  a  large  number  of  supervisors  needs  to  be  trained 
for  this  specific  job  of  supervision  in  both  of  these  fields.  If 
agencies  do  not  already  exist  that  are  adapted  to  accom- 
plishing this  work,  then  such  agencies  should  be  devised  and 
put  into  operation  as  rapidly  as  it  can  possibly  be  done.  The 
natural  agencies  for  doing  this  line  of  training  are  evidently 
the  teacher-training  institutions.  In  these  institutions, 
just  as  the  teacher  in  training  can  see  expert  teaching  dem- 
onstrated and  also  teach  under  expert  guidance,  so  can  the 
supervisor  in  training  see  expert  supervision  demonstrated 
and  also  supervise  under  expert  guidance. 

The  newest  function,  then,  that  thoroughly  established 
training  schools  and  colleges  should  undertake  to  perform  is 
that  of  training  a  supply  of  supervisors  for  the  public  schools 
and  for  training  schools  as  well.  In  order  to  meet  this  grow- 
ing demand  for  trained  supervisors,  the  science  of  supervi- 
sion must  be  developed  and  formulated  so  that  the  subject- 
matter  of  supervision  may  be  studied  in  as  definite  and  as 
thorough  a  fashion  as  the  student  of  teaching  studies  the 
principles  of  method,  devices,  and  technique.  Then,  just  as 
the  student-teacher  is  given  ample  opportunity  to  practice 
teaching  under  careful  supervision,  so  must  the  student- 
supervisor  be  given  ample  opportunity  to  practice  supervis- 
ing under  careful,  competent  supervision. 

Administrators  need  supervisory  training.  The  tendency 
to-day  is  to  regard  the  chief  function  of  school  administra- 
tors as  that  of  dealing  with  the  subject-matter  of  instruction 
and  the  process  of  instruction.  The  clerical  work,  the  finan« 
cial  details,  and  general  business  routine  are  taken  over  now 


INTRODUCTION  9 

almost  entirely  by  the  business  manager  and  clerical  assist- 
ants. As  these  business  matters  are  taken  off  of  the  super- 
intendent or  principal,  he  is  expected  to  give  more  attention 
to  improving  the  efficiency  of  instruction.  The  tendency  is 
to  bring  about  improvement  by  securing  the  best  teachers 
available,  and  by  improving  the  work  of  the  weaker  ones 
through  supervision. 

The  fact,  then,  is  perfectly  obvious  that  since  in  many 
school  systems  the  superintendent,  assistant  superintend- 
ent, supervising  principal,  and  building  principal,  as  the 
case  may  be,  must  undertake  the  task  of  supervising  the 
teaching,  the  success  of  the  administrator  is  being  measured 
more  and  more  to-day  by  the  improvement  he  brings  about 
in  courses  of  instruction  and  in  the  efficiency  with  which  the 
courses  are  taught.  The  more  thoroughly  the  administra- 
tor is  trained  for  the  specific  work  of  supervision,  the  more 
successful  he  will  be  in  carrying  on  this  work  in  connection 
with  his  other  duties.  The  more  successful  he  is  in  carrying 
on  any  phase  of  the  supervising  activities,  the  better  able 
he  will  be  to  show  the  value  of  having  the  work  of  super- 
vision thoroughly  done.  He  can  show  not  only  the  value 
of  supervision,  but  also  the  impossibility  of  doing  all  that 
could  and  should  be  done,  without  adequate  assistance. 
This  assistance  may  be  in  the  line  of  more  clerical  help  that 
will  enable  him  to  devote  more  time  to  supervision,  or  it 
may  be  in  the  provision  of  supervisory  help.  In  any  case, 
the  administrator  who  is  trained  for  supervision  has  a  great 
advantage  over  the  one  who  is  not  so  trained,  and  he  has  a 
wonderful  opportunity  to  make  such  a  contribution  to  the 
work  of  public  education  that  it  will  not  go  unrecognized. 

S.  Is  there  danger  of  formalism? 

The  formality  of  technique.  One  criticism  that  has  been 
made  on  the  training  school  is  that  it  tends  to  become  too 


10  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 

formal  in  its  organization  and  administration,  due  to  the 
fact  that  it  attempts  to  make  the  study  of  teaching  inten- 
sive. The  same  criticism  will  no  doubt  be  made  against  the 
proposition  to  train  supervisors  through  intensive  study  and 
practice  in  training-school  institutions.  At  first  thought 
the  organization  of  any  school  or  class  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  out  the  training  of  supervisors  according  to  the 
principles,  devices,  and  technique  set  forth  in  the  following 
discussions  would  seem  to  be  a  pretty  formal  sort  of  an  or- 
ganization. A  careful  examination  of  the  whole  situation, 
however,  reveals  the  error  of  such  a  conclusion. 

First  of  all  one  must  set  up  a  definition  of  formalism.  The 
usual  idea  of  formalism  seems  to  be  that  it  is  carrying  on  a 
performance  in  keeping  with  some  fixed  rule  or  standard 
that  exists  in  and  for  itself  without  respect  to  the  particular 
situation  in  which  the  performance  is  carried  on.  For  ex- 
ample, a  teacher  in  the  training  school  studies  the  art  of 
questioning.  While  he  is  studying  the  art  of  questioning,  he 
is  concerned  with  the  form  of  his  questions,  with  the  number 
of  questions,  with  the  speed  of  asking  them,  etc.  He  studies 
the  performance  of  the  expert  teaching  supervisor  in  asking 
questions  and  notes  the  form  of  the  questions,  number,  etc. 
Then  he  goes  out  into  the  public  schools  and  tries  to  follow 
the  exact  form  of  questioning  that  he  saw  used  and  perhaps 
used  himself  in  the  training  school.  Very  often  the  results 
are  very  unsatisfactory,  and  the  failure  is  blamed  on  the 
formal  training  that  the  teacher  received  in  the  training 
school.  The  criticism  is  that  the  training-school  situation 
was  made  too  formal  in  order  to  teach  the  student-teacher 
the  art  of  questioning;  hence,  when  the  teacher  gets  out  into 
a  real  school  situation,  where  no  one  is  concerned  about  the 
art  of  questioning  for  its  own  sake,  he  cannot  use  his  train- 
ing-school stuff  and  has  to  acquire  real  teaching  experience 
through  trial  and  error,  main  strength  and  awkwardness,  etc. 


INTRODUCTION  11 

Some  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  sooner  the  teacher 
forgets  the  formal  stuff  that  he  got  in  the  training  school, 
the  better  off  he  will  be  and  the  sooner  he  will  get  down  to 
practical  teaching  activities. 

Transforming  technique  into  habits.  There  is  truth  in 
the  statement  that  teachers  go  out  from  the  training  school 
acd  blindly  follow  the  formulae  that  were  demonstrated  in 
their  training,  and  as  a  result  fail  in  their  teaching.  The 
reason,  however,  that  such  teachers  fail  is  not  because  they 
received  formal  training  in  the  training  institution,  but  be- 
cause they  did  not  continue  their  training  long  enough  to 
become  masters  of  the  formulae.  The  training-school  teach- 
ers who  demonstrated  these  formulae  would  not  have  made 
the  failures  that  the  student-teachers  made  had  they  been 
placed  in  the  same  teaching  situations  that  confronted  these 
student-teachers  when  they  went  into  the  public  schools. 
This  is  an  important  fact  that  the  critics  have  overlooked, 
and  it  is  the  fact  that  gives  the  answer  to  the  whole  question. 

Why  would  the  expert  training-school  supervisor  not  have 
failed  where  the  student- teacher  failed?  The  reason  is  that 
the  supervisor  has  mastered  the  principles  of  method,  de- 
vices, technique,  and  management  so  thoroughly  that  they 
are  to  him  merely  the  tools  with  which  he  works  in  the  busi- 
ness of  educating  the  pupils  in  his  classes.  He  has  passed 
through  the  necessary  stages  of  habit  formation,  so  that  he 
is  no  longer  engrossed  with  induction,  deduction,  art  of 
questioning,  etc.,  as  aspects  of  teaching  in  and  of  them- 
selves, but  they  come  readily  to  mind  in  the  most  appropri- 
ate form  in  which  they  can  be  used  to  meet  particular  teach- 
ing situations.  The  expert  supervisor  is  free  to  give  his 
attention  to  analyzing  the  educational  needs  of  the  pupils 
and  depends  upon  his  habits  to  take  care  of  themselves  in 
enabling  him  to  meet  successfully  these  needs. 

Why  teachers  fail  in  using  technique.     Why,  then,  does 


12  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 

the  teacher  fresh  from  the  training  school  often  fail?  The 
reason  is  that  he  has  not  got  beyond  the  stage  of  learning 
where  he  can  ignore  the  art  of  questioning,  induction,  etc., 
as  existences  in  and  of  themselves,  and  depend  upon  them 
as  efficient  habits.  He  must  stop  to  decide  whether  the 
inductive  or  the  deductive  organization  of  subject-matter 
should  be  used.  Moreover,  when  he  has  decided  that  in- 
duction, for  example,  should  be  used,  then  he  becomes 
engrossed  with  getting  the  material  into  the  inductive  form 
and  in  so  doing  often  loses  sight  of  needs  of  the  pupils.  The 
result  is  that  he  gets  his  lesson  presented  in  a  formal  induc- 
tive organization,  but  fails  to  accomplish  the  desired  re- 
sults. What  this  teacher  needs  is  more  and  yet  more  of  the 
study  of  the  formal  nature  of  the  tools  of  teaching,  and  more 
and  more  practice  in  using  them  under  the  wise  guidance  of 
an  expert,  so  that  finally  he  ceases  to  be  concerned  with 
these  tools  in  and  of  themselves.  When  this  stage  of  formal, 
habit-forming  training  has  been  reached,  the  teacher  will  be 
able  to  forget  his  formal  training  and  can  trust  it  to  take 
care  of  itself  in  the  form  of  definite  habits  when  he  is  en- 
grossed with  the  vital  needs  of  the  pupils  whom  he  is  teach- 
ing. This  kind  of  a  formally  trained  teacher  will  not  fail. 
The  trouble  is  that  teachers  are  turned  out  of  the  training 
school  at  the  time  when  the  most  fruitful  part  of  their  train- 
ing is  just  ready  to  begin.  A  whole  year  given  entirely  to 
teaching  under  expert  supervision  would  be  short  enough 
time  to  accomplish  satisfactory  results. 

Is  there  a  formal  stage  in  all  training  ?  The  question  thai 
is  now  valid  to  raise  is  whether  a  teacher  can  ever  under  any 
conditions  become  a  successful,  efficient  teacher  without 
passing  through  this  so-called  formal  phase  of  training 
Must  not  all  teachers  form  habits  that  enable  them  to  use 
the  tools  of  teaching  effectively  if  they  ever  succeed  as 
teachers?  Can  habits  of  teaching  be  formed  more  effec- 


INTRODUCTION  13 

lively  and  more  economically  through  accidental,  haphazard 
experiences  than  through  systematic  study  and  training? 
Can  the  teacher  study  the  tools  of  teaching  better  in  the 
midst  of  the  complexities  of  the  actual  teaching  situations 
than  he  can  study  them  when  they  are  taken  one  at  a  time 
and  thoroughly  analyzed  for  his  particular  benefit  until  he 
has  mastered  all  of  them?  Cannot  the  teacher  bring  just  as 
much  initiative  and  individual  genius  to  the  study  of  the 
tools  of  teaching  when  they  are  brought  before  him  by  an 
expert  teacher  of  teaching  as  he  can  when  these  same  prob- 
lems are  presented  incidentally  and  accidentally  in  the 
course  of  his  untutored  teaching  experiences? 

The  answers  to  all  of  these  questions  and  to  other  ques- 
tions of  similar  character  that  might  well  be  asked  are  cer- 
tainly obvious.  No  teacher  can  escape  passing  through  the 
stages  of  habit  formation  that  have  been  termed  formal 
training,  no  matter  whether  the  habits  formed  are  good  or 
bad.  And  certainly  no  one  will  argue  that  important  habits 
can  be  formed  more  economically  and  more  thoroughly  by 
accidental,  spontaneous  means  than  they  can  be  formed  by 
thoroughgoing  systematic  study  and  practice.  Such  an 
argument,  if  valid,  would  settle  the  whole  question  most 
effectively,  because,  if  people  acted  in  keeping  with  it,  there 
would  be  no  schools  and  no  teachers  would  be  needed. 

Training  and  attaining  efficiency.  One  more  question  is 
valid  in  this  connection,  and  that  is  as  to  whether  a  teacher 
who  has  been  trained  in  this  so-called  formal  way,  although 
seeming  to  fail  at  first,  will  not  become  more  efficient  in  time 
and  in  a  much  shorter  time  than  will  the  teacher  who  enters 
the  ranks  without  such  training,  taking  for  granted  that  all 
other  things  are  equal  in  the  two  cases.  The  answer  that  is 
furnished  by  the  testimony  of  competent  school  people  is  in 
favor  of  the  training-school-teacher  product.  This  fact, 
and  the  fact  that  teachers  must  under  present  conditions 


14  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 

leave  the  training  school  for  active  service  before  anything 
like  such  mastery  of  the  tools  of  teaching  as  has  been  sug- 
gested above  can  be  accomplished,  make  it  all  the  more  im- 
perative that  provision  be  made  for  adequate  supervision  of 
instruction  in  the  public  schools  as  well  as  in  the  training 
school.  Such  supervision  will  hasten  the  completion  of  the 
training  of  the  training-school  product,  and  also  take  care 
of  the  untrained  forces  that  still  crowd  the  ranks  from  year 
to  year. 

Meaning  of  the  formal  period.  A  final  most  vital  point 
that  should  be  noted  is  that  it  is  not  the  fact  that  one  is 
studying  his  teaching  performance  in  a  training  school  under 
the  direction  of  an  expert  supervisor,  or  the  fact  that  he  is 
studying  his  teaching  performance  in  a  public  school  with- 
out the  help  of  any  one,  that  makes  his  training  formal  or 
otherwise,  but  it  is  the  fact  that  one  turns  his  whole  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  the  tools  of  teaching  and  makes,  for  the 
time  being,  their  essential  characteristics  his  whole  concern. 
This  taking  time  off  from  the  job  of  teaching,  in  either  case, 
in  order  to  master  the  tools  with  which  to  do  the  job  most 
efficiently  is  formal  study  and  formal  training.  In  each 
case  the  teacher  studies  the  tools  for  their  own  sakes,  and 
tries  them  out  until  he  discovers  how  they  work  and  why 
they  work,  then  practice  soon  puts  them  in  the  realm  of 
habit  and  the  teacher  is  freed  from  the  formalism  of  his 
training. 

How  does  the  training  school  compare,  then,  with  the 
public  school  as  to  formality  of  organization?  The  answer 
is  not  far  to  seek.  The  training  school  is  no  more  formal 
than  the  public  school  so  far  as  the  work  of  the  pupils  is  con- 
cerned. The  trained  supervisor,  while  he  affords  opportu- 
nity for  the  student-teacher  to  study  the  tools  of  teaching 
systematically  and  thoroughly,  at  the  same  tune  keeps  these 
tools  adapted  and  adjusted  to  the  teaching  situations  so  that 


INTRODUCTION  15 

just  as  practical  and  thorough  results  are  secured  as  can  be 
secured  under  any  school  conditions.  In  fact,  the  training 
school  in  the  hands  of  highly  efficient  supervisors  is  less  apt 
to  suffer  on  account  of  formalism  than  is  the  public  school 
whose  teacher  is  passing  through  the  formal  stage  of  his  de- 
velopment on  his  own  initiative  without  guidance.  The 
reason  is  that  such  a  teacher  will  not  always  by  any  means 
keep  the  tools  adapted  and  adjusted  to  the  teaching  situa- 
tions while  he  is  in  the  process  of  mastering  them.  Whether 
the  teachers  be  trained  in  schools  designated  as  training 
schools  or  in  the  regular  public  schools,  the  schools  them- 
selves can  be  saved  from  all  the  dangers  of  formalism  by 
providing  an  adequate  force  of  competent  supervisors  to 
carry  on  the  training  work. 

Supervisors,  too,  must  master  technique.  The  training 
of  supervisors  demands  that  they,  too,  must  master  the 
tools  of  supervision.  Then  supervisors,  like  other  teachers, 
must  study  the  principles  of  method,  devices,  and  technique 
of  supervision  for  their  own  sakes  until  they  have  thor- 
oughly mastered  these  tools  and  can  trust  them  to  take  care 
of  themselves  in  the  form  of  efficient  habits,  leaving  the 
supervisors  free  to  give  then*  whole  attention  to  the  needs  of 
the  supervising  situations.  This  formal  phase  of  training 
cannot  be  escaped  on  the  part  of  the  would-be  supervisors, 
and  candidates  for  this  most  important  service  in  education 
should  not  stop  their  training  until  thorough  mastery  and 
high  efficiency  is  reached.  This  training  can  be  successfully 
completed  in  a  well-equipped  training  school,  or  it  may  be 
begun  there  and  finished  in  the  public  school  by  provision 
being  made  for  training  of  supervisors  while  they  are  en- 
gaged in  the  active  duties  of  supervision.  That  is  to  say, 
just  as  provision  needs  to  be  made  for  improving  teachers  in 
service,  so  provision  needs  to  be  made  for  the  improvement 
of  supervisors  in  service. 


16  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 

This  need  is  all  the  more  pressing  because  of  the  fact  that 
just  as  training  schools  cannot  as  yet  turn  out  an  adequate 
supply  of  thoroughly  trained  teachers,  so  they  can  supply 
only  a  small  part  of  efficiently  trained  supervisors  that  are 
needed.  Some  cities  have  already  undertaken  to  do  some- 
thing in  this  direction  through  extension  courses,  profes- 
sional lectures,  and  the  study  of  educational  literature. 
These  means  are  helpful,  but  they  are  far  from  adequate  to 
accomplish  thoroughgoing  results.  Some  agency  must  be 
set  up  whereby  competent  direction  of  the  work  of  the  su- 
pervisors is  systematically  carried  on  throughout  the  school 
year. 

Formalism  eliminated  by  mastery.  The  final  suggestion 
that  needs  to  be  made  in  closing  this  part  of  the  discussion 
is  that  formalism  in  the  training  of  supervisors  can  be  elimi- 
nated only  by  thoroughly  mastering  the  principles  which 
comprise  the  tools  of  supervision.  Merely  studying  the 
subject-matter  of  supervision  until  one  comprehends  what 
the  principles  are  will  not  suffice.  The  study  must  be  con- 
tinued until  the  principles  become  a  coherent  unity  and 
form  the  basis  of  efficient  habits  intelligently  practiced. 

3.  The  problem  of  training  supervisors 

Two  questions  involved.  The  problem  of  training  super- 
visors involves  two  fundamental  and  distinct  questions: 
(l)  What  are  the  activities  that  supervisors  in  training 
schools  and  in  public  schools  carry  on  in  the  performance  of 
their  duties?  (2)  What  are  the  kinds  of  training  that  best 
prepare  supervisors  to  perform  these  duties?  The  answer 
to  the  first  question  is  obviously  the  starting-point  in  de- 
termining the  answer  to  the  second,  for  one  must  necessarily 
know  what  the  job  of  supervision  is  before  one  can  formu- 
late a  practical  program  of  training  that  will  prove  adequate 
in  preparing  supervisors  for  the  specific  job  of  supervision. 


INTRODUCTION  17 

A  satisfactory  answer  to  the  second  question  means  a  pretty 
definite  solution  of  the  large  problem  of  supervision. 

The  plan  of  this  book.  The  organization  of  the  material 
of  this  discussion  is  based  upon  the  two  questions  just  pro- 
posed. 

Part  I  is  devoted  to  the  task  of  defining  the  job  of  super- 
vision and  to  setting  forth,  in  some  detail,  the  activities  that 
supervisors  in  training  schools  and  in  public  schools  cany  on 
in  pursuance  of  the  purposes  for  which  they  have  been 
employed  in  their  respective  fields. 

Part  II  is  given  to  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  train- 
ing supervisors  adequately  so  that  they  may  perform,  most 
efficiently,  the  activities  set  forth  in  Part  I. 

The  material  of  Part  II  is  divided  into  three  sections,  ac- 
cording to  the  fundamental  aspects  of  the  pedagogical  prob- 
lem involved  —  namely,  method,  device,  and  technique. 

These  three  aspects  of  the  problem  are  practically  of  equal 
importance,  but  considerable  of  emphasis  has  been  given  to 
the  discussion  of  the  principles  of  method,  and  especially  to 
the  first  principle.  This  emphasis  upon  method  seems,  in 
the  mind  of  the  writer,  to  be  justifiable  on  the  basis  of  defi- 
nite facts  concerning  supervision. 

The  greatest  weakness  of  supervision.  The  first  fact 
that  justifies  the  emphasis  placed  upon  method  is  the  fact 
that  the  greatest  weakness  of  supervision  is  its  proneness 
to  be  largely  a  matter  of  devices  and  technique.  Definite, 
recognized  principles  have  been  lacking.  Such  principles 
are  the  very  foundation  of  the  whole  procedure  in  carrying 
on  the  work  of  supervision;  hence  it  seems  worth  while  to 
spend  a  considerable  amount  of  time  in  an  intensive  study 
that  will  make  possible  a  thorough  mastery  of  the  essential 
details.  Supervisors  and  teachers  in  general  have  given 
little  or  no  consideration  to  the  facts  set  forth  under  princi- 
ple one,  and  this  is  one  of  the  principal  reasons  why  the  work 


18  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 

of  supervision  has  been  so  inadequate  and  so  unsatisfactory. 
The  refinement  of  the  supervising  activities,  and  of  the  de- 
vices and  technique  employed  in  carrying  on  these  activities, 
can  be  brought  about  only  by  setting  up  definite  principles 
of  method  and  then  adhering  to  them  strictly  at  all  times. 
Details  vs.  generalities.  The  amount  of  details  that  are 
given,  not  only  in  the  section  on  method,  but  also  in  parts  of 
the  section  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  devices,  seems  justi- 
fiable on  the  basis  of  the  general  tendency  to  stop  with  gen- 
eralities. The  tendency  to  agree  upon  the  generalizations 
and  to  take  the  details  for  granted  is  one  of  the  rocks  upon 
which  a  good  many  pedagogical  crafts  have  been  wrecked. 
Mental  agreement  upon  a  principle  never  appreciably  af- 
fects the  procedure  of  supervisors  and  teachers  unless  the 
details  that  are  implied  in  the  principle  are  set  forth  defi- 
nitely, are  mastered,  and  are  kept  clearly  in  mind  at  all 
times.  For  example,  the  reader  may  agree  with  the  writer 
that  the  supervisor  and  the  teachers  who  work  under  him 
should  have  common  knowledge  concerning  the  psychologi- 
cal characteristics  of  adolescents,  but,  if  the  writer  had  not 
set  forth  the  details  of  the  body  of  common  knowledge  that 
he  had  in  mind,  the  reader  would  not  know  exactly  what 
facts  the  writer  thought  ought  to  be  so  thoroughly  mastered 
and  held  in  mind  that  they  would  be  readily  recognized  at 
any  tune  that  they  appeared  in  the  behavior  of  the  pupils. 
Moreover,  the  reader  would  likely  have  followed  the  natu- 
ral tendency  to  be  satisfied  with  a  vague  idea  of  what  these 
facts  might  be,  and  would  not  have  taken  the  time  and  the 
energy  to  work  out  a  set  of  details  for  himself  and  commit 
them  to  definite  form.  The  more  one  commits  himself  to 
the  details  that  embody  a  concept  or  idea  of  a  principle,  the 
more  one  refines  his  thinking  in  that  particular  connection, 
and  the  more  he  refines  his  behavior  in  getting  control  over 
the  situation. 


INTRODUCTION  19 

Chapter  summary.  The  shifting,  unprofessional  charac- 
ter of  the  teaching  body  makes  the  provision  for  competent 
supervision  of  instruction  not  only  desirable,  but  necessary. 
The  danger  of  formalism  in  training  of  supervisors  can  be 
met  by  thorough  mastery  of  the  comprehensive  body  of 
principles  that  comprise  the  tools  of  supervision  and  ade- 
quate practice  in  their  applications.  The  undertaking  of 
training  supervisors  involves  the  setting-forth  of  the  job  or 
activities  of  supervision,  and  the  organizing  of  the  means  by 
which  supervisors  can  best  be  trained  to  perform  their  du- 
ties. The  remainder  of  this  discussion  is  devoted  to  this 
undertaking. 


PART  I 
THE  JOB  OF  SUPERVISION 


CHAPTER  H 
SUPERVISING  ACTIVITIES 

THE  activities  that  are  carried  on  by  the  supervisor  in  a 
training  school  and  the  activities  that  are  performed  by  the 
supervisory  official  in  a  public  school  are  fundamentally  the 
same.  Some  modifications  in  emphasis  upon  this  or  that 
activity  may  be  necessary  in  the  one  field  or  in  the  other. 
Such  modifications  as  seem  important  to  note  will  be  indi- 
cated and  discussed  in  the  light  of  their  importance  in  each 
field.  In  general  there  seem  to  be  at  least  eight  forms  of 
activity  that  are  carried  on  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  in  both 
fields. 

Laying  the  basis  for  cooperative  teaching.  The  super- 
visor should  realize  first  of  all  that  he  makes  his  contribution 
to  the  education  of  the  pupils  who  are  being  taught  through 
the  work  of  the  teachers  who  teach  under  his  direction.  In 
order  to  make  a  valid,  definite  contribution  to  the  education 
of  the  pupils,  the  supervisor  must  secure  the  hearty  coopera- 
tion of  the  teachers  in  carrying  out  his  ideas.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  supervisor  must  cooperate  most  heartily  with  the 
teachers  in  the  performance  of  their  duties  so  that  their  in- 
dividual efforts  in  carrying  out  his  ideas  will  be  most  effec- 
tive. In  other  words,  both  supervisor  and  teachers  should 
feel  that  the  teaching  of  the  pupils  is  a  mutual  undertaking 
to  which  each  must  make  his  contribution  in  harmonious 
cooperation  with  the  other. 

The  first  objective,  then,  that  the  supervisor  should  strive 
to  attain  is  the  securing  of  the  proper  attitude  of  his  teachers 
toward  his  work  with  them.  He  is  responsible  for  working 
out  and  establishing  the  definite  basis  of  mutual  under- 


24  THE  JOB  OF  SUPERVISION 

standing  regarding  the  duties  that  he  is  to  perform  and  the 
duties  that  the  teachers  are  to  perform,  so  that  on  the  basis 
of  common  knowledge  and  common  purposes  the  teachers 
may  enter  into  their  work  in  a  spirit  of  hearty  support  and 
cooperation.  A  detailed  account  of  what  the  supervisor 
may  do  in  laying  a  definite  basis  for  cooperative  teaching 
will  be  given  under  the  discussion  of  the  first  principle  of 
method  in  the  first  section  of  Part  II. 

Selecting  and  organizing  the  subject-matter  of  courses. 
The  supervisor  in  a  training  school  usually  has  a  fairly  free 
hand  in  shaping  the  courses  under  his  charge  to  conform  to 
what  he  thinks  these  courses  ought  to  be.  Even  where 
quite  definite  courses  of  study  are  already  mapped  out  by  a 
state  department  of  education,  or  by  a  department  in  the 
training  institution,  the  supervisor  still  has  the  responsibil- 
ity of  adapting  the  work  to  the  particular  groups  of  pupils 
that  are  being  taught.  The  supervisor  has  not  only  a  great 
responsibility  in  solving  the  problem  of  selection  and  adap- 
tation of  subject-matter,  but  he  has  also  a  great  opportu- 
nity. In  order  to  make  the  most  of  this  opportunity,  the 
supervisor  must  know  thoroughly  the  needs  of  the  respec- 
tive groups  of  pupils  who  are  taught  under  his  direction,  and 
he  must  also  know  accurately  and  thoroughly  the  value  of 
the  various  types  and  phases  of  subject-matter  that  may  be 
employed  in  meeting  the  needs  of  the  pupils. 

The  supervisor  who  works  in  a  public  school  system  very 
often  has  the  entire  responsibility  of  making  up  the  course  of 
study  in  the  line  or  lines  of  work  that  he  supervises.  If, 
however,  the  course  of  study  is  already  mapped  out  by  the 
state  department,  or  by  the  head  of  the  system  in  which  the 
supervisor  works,  then,  as  has  just  been  suggested  in  refer- 
ence to  the  supervisor  in  the  training  school,  the  supervisor 
still  has  the  responsibility  and  the  opportunity  of  adapting 
the  subject-matter  to  the  particular  groups  of  pupils  who 


SUPERVISING  ACTIVITIES  25 

are  being  taught  under  his  supervision.  In  any  case,  the 
supervisor  must  possess  a  thoroughgoing  knowledge  of  the 
needs  of  the  pupils  and  adequately  comprehend  the  value  of 
the  kinds  of  subject-matter  that  may  best  minister  to  these 
needs.  Moreover,  the  supervisor  must  know  the  limitations 
of  the  pupils'  abilities  to  accomplish  work  within  the  time 
limits  of  the  recitation  periods  that  the  school  program 
makes  possible. 

This  task  of  selecting  and  organizing  subject-matter  is  a 
very  vital  one,  and  the  supervisor  who  does  not  acquire  a 
high  degree  of  skill  in  carrying  out  this  phase  of  his  work 
will  never  become  a  thoroughly  efficient  and  independent 
director  of  teaching  activities.  The  attainment  of  a  satis- 
factory degree  of  skill  in  this  line  of  service  demands  indus- 
try, insight,  and  a  vast  amount  of  time  and  energy.  The 
supervisor  must  become  conversant  with  the  literature  that 
bears  upon  this  problem  and  he  must  also  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  practices  in  modern  schools  in  regard  to 
problems  of  curriculum-making  that  are  similar  to  those 
that  he  is  called  upon  to  solve.  If  he  as  a  supervisor  does 
not  have  the  authority  to  make  needed  changes  in  the 
selection  and  arrangement  of  the  subject-matter  in  the 
courses  under  his  charge,  he  is  at  least  responsible  for  under- 
taking to  convince  those  who  are  in  authority  of  the  validity 
of  the  changes  that  he  deems  necessary  to  make.  There- 
fore>  the  supervisor  must  not  only  have  definite  convictions 
concerning  curriculum-making,  but  he  must  have  skill  in 
the  technique  of  working  out  courses  in  great  detail,  and  he 
must  be  able  to  produce  evidences  in  support  of  his  point 
of  view  in  respect  to  the  selection  and  the  arrangement  of 
subject-matter. 

Teaching  for  purposes  of  experimentation  and  demon- 
stration. The  supervisor,  whether  he  works  in  a  training 
school  or  in  a  public  school  system,  should  be  an  expert 


26  THE  JOB  OF  SUPERVISION 

teacher  of  the  lines  of  work  that  he  undertakes  to  supervise. 
One  of  the  functions  that  the  supervisor  should  perform  is 
that  of  bringing  about  an  improvement  in  the  teaching 
process.  In  order  to  contribute  to  this  end,  he  must  not 
only  be  able  to  see  the  possibilities  of  making  improvement 
through  modifications  in  the  procedure  of  teaching,  but  he 
must  be  able  to  set  up  experimental  conditions  and  to  carry 
out  the  actual  experiment  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  The 
supervisor  must  not  only  be  able  to  tell  others  how  to  do  an 
excellent  job  of  teaching,  but  he  should  be  able  to  demon- 
strate by  actual  performance  the  sort  of  teaching  efficiency 
that  he  is  striving  to  develop  in  those  who  are  working  under 
his  direction.  For  example,  if  the  supervisor  believes  that 
the  teaching  of  spelling  can  be  accomplished  best  by  the 
project  plan  of  procedure,  then  he  should  be  able  to  set  up 
the  conditions  and  to  carry  on  the  teaching  of  spelling  by 
that  plan  for  a  sufficient  length  of  tune  fully  to  demonstrate 
the  validity  of  the  plan  and  to  give  the  teachers  a  good  ex- 
hibition of  skillful  teaching  of  spelling  in  the  form  of  a  proj- 
ect or  projects,  as  the  case  might  be.  This  means  that  the 
supervisor  must  plan  to  do  more  or  less  of  teaching,  and  that 
he  should  keep  in  practice  so  he  will  not  lose  his  skill  and 
efficiency  as  a  teacher. 

The  supervisor  needs  to  teach,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of 
experimenting  and  of  demonstrating,  but  also  for  the  pur- 
pose of  discovering  the  actual  difficulties  and  possibilities 
that  exist  in  the  particular  teaching  situations  with  which 
he  has  to  deal.  He  needs  to  carry  on  this  activity  to  an  ex- 
tent sufficient  to  enable  him  to  keep  a  true  perspective  of 
actual  things  that  the  pupils  face  in  pursuing  their  studies, 
and  the  things  that  the  teachers  face  in  carrying  out  their 
duties.  In  no  other  way  can  the  supervisor  keep  himself  so 
well  in  a  helpful  attitude  toward  his  teachers. 

Directing  systematic  observation  of  expert  and  inexpert 


SUPERVISING  ACTIVITIES  27 

teaching  performances.  This  activity  is  carried  on  more 
extensively  and  more  intensively  in  training  schools  than  it 
is  in  public  school  systems.  More  or  less  of  observation 
work,  however,  is  carried  on  in  many  of  the  larger  public 
school  systems  and  much  more  of  it  could  profitably  be  done. 
The  people  who  do  the  observing  are  cadet  teachers,  supply 
teachers,  and  even  regular  teachers  who  have  not  had  ex- 
tended experience  or  who  desire  to  improve  their  work. 
The  observing  that  is  ordinarily  done  in  the  public  school  is 
usually  general  and  rather  indefinite.  The  observers  are 
left  too  much  to  their  own  devices  and  not  trained  system- 
atically in  observing  definite  phases  of  teaching  perform- 
ances. Teachers  "visit"  schools  and  carry  away  only  very 
vague  general  impressions,  or  at  most,  perhaps,  they  copy 
a  few  devices  that  seem  to  be  new  and  novel. 

The  supervisor  in  any  case  cannot  direct  the  work  of  ob- 
servation so  that  it  will  result  in  practical  development  and 
training  of  teachers  unless  he  himself  is  a  keen,  accurate  ob- 
server of  teaching  activities.  In  addition  to  this  he  must 
acquire  skill  hi  directing  others  in  their  study  of  teaching 
performances  so  that  they  too  will  acquire  skill  in  observa- 
tion. In  order  to  accomplish  this  result,  in  training  teach- 
ers to  observe  the  supervisor  must  master  two  vital  skills 
that  have  to  be  carried  on  at  the  same  time.  The  supervisor 
must  be  able  to  see  what  is  going  on  in  the  teaching  perform- 
ance, and  he  must  at  the  same  time  know  pretty  definitely 
what  is  going  on  in  the  minds  of  the  observers. 

The  observation,  on  the  part  of  the  supervisor,  of  the 
observation  performance  of  the  teachers  is  by  far  the  most 
difficult  of  the  two  skills.  The  difficulties  that  are  experi- 
enced by  the  observers  in  making  a  discriminating  study  of 
the  teaching  performance  must  be  discovered  and  overcome 
by  proper  guidance  and  practice.  A  detailed  analysis  of 
this  problem  will  be  given  in  a  later  discussion. 


28  THE  JOB  OF  SUPERVISION 

Directing  teaching  activities.  This  may  be  of  student- 
teachers,  or  of  regular  teachers  in  public  schools.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  obvious  of  the  duties  that  the  supervisor 
must  carry  out.  It  is  also  the  activity  that  makes  the  most 
searching  test  of  his  skill  and  efficiency.  The  primary  idea 
in  the  work  of  supervision  is  that  the  supervisor  is  a  director 
of  the  teaching  activities  of  teachers.  Therefore,  he  must 
seek  to  discover  all  the  practical  phases  of  the  actual  teach- 
ing performance  that  may  be  materially  improved  through 
adequate  supervision,  and  then  strive  to  acquire  the  highest 
degree  of  skill  in  directing  these  activities  in  such  a  way  as  to 
secure  the  best  results. 

Checking  up  pupil  progress.  Checking  up  the  progress  of 
the  pupils  who  are  being  taught  by  the  student-teacher,  or 
by  the  regular  teacher,  and  seeing  that  the  work  of  the  pu- 
pils is  up  to  a  satisfactory  standard,  is  a  fifth  important  form 
of  activity  of  the  supervisor.  He  is  responsible  to  a  large 
extent  for  the  progress  that  the  pupils  make  under  the  teach- 
ing that  is  done  under  his  supervision.  The  supervisor 
should  keep  systematic  records  of  the  work  of  the  pupils, 
and  he  should  study  both  the  pupils  and  the  teachers  as 
they  work  together,  so  that  ultimately  he  may  be  able  to 
estimate  accurately  the  actual  progress  of  both  pupils  and 
teachers.  Protecting  the  welfare  of  the  pupils  is  a  large  re- 
sponsibility, and  the  supervisor  must  prepare  himself  to 
meet  this  duty  in  a  highly  satisfactory  manner. 

Measuring  progress  and  efficiency  of  teacher.  The 
measurement  of  the  progress  and  efficiency  of  the  student- 
teacher,  or  of  the  regular  teacher  who  teaches  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  supervisor,  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  phases 
of  the  supervisor's  work.  He  is  in  the  best  position  of  any 
person  connected  with  the  work  of  the  teacher  under  his 
charge  to  measure  intelligently  and  accurately  the  actual 
accomplishment  of  the  teacher.  The  student-teacher  must 


SUPERVISING  ACTIVITIES  99 

depend  upon  the  fairness,  justness,  and  reliability  of  the 
supervisor's  judgment  in  determining  his  grade,  credit,  and 
recommendation  for  a  teaching  position.  The  regular 
teacher  in  a  public  school  system  must  depend  upon  the  re- 
liability and  fairness  of  the  supervisor's  judgment  for  his 
grade  in  success,  his  recommendation  for  reemployment, 
and  his  recommendation  for  promotion  in  rank  and  salary. 
This  duty  of  the  supervisor  is  one  of  the  most  far-reaching 
in  its  results;  hence  it  is  one  of  the  most  responsible  activi- 
ties that  he  must  perform.  Therefore  the  supervisor  must 
study  faithfully  to  master  a  set  of  practical  standards  that 
may  be  used  validly  in  measuring  the  work  of  the  teacher, 
and  he  must  strive  diligently  to  acquire  skill  in  employing 
the  standards. 

Measuring  the  efficiency  of  supervision.  The  supervisor 
should  make  as  careful  a  measure  of  his  own  work  as  he  is 
able  to  do.  This  matter  is  just  as  important  as  the  measur- 
ing of  the  work  done  by  the  teacher  who  works  under  his 
direction.  The  supervisor  should  be  willing  to  submit  his 
work  to  the  same  kind  of  objective  measurements  that  he 
applies  to  measuring  the  work  of  the  teacher.  Therefore 
he  should  master  practical  standards  for  measuring  his  su- 
pervising activities,  and  he  should  seek  to  attain  skill  in 
applying  these  standards  to  his  own  case. 

The  goal  of  supervision,  when  the  supervisor  works  in  a 
training  school,  is  the  making  of  efficient  teachers.  When 
the  supervisor  works  in  a  public  school  system  it  is  to  im- 
prove teachers  in  service  and  to  secure  efficient  teaching  re- 
sults. The  scope  of  activities  performed  by  the  supervisor 
should  be  the  same  hi  each  case.  The  relation  of  these  ac- 
tivities to  the  goal  he  is  trying  to  attain  is  readily  recognized. 
For  example,  the  supervisor  could  not  have  much  freedom  in 
training  teachers,  or  in  directing  them,  if  he  could  not  have 
a  considerable  degree  of  control  over  the  selection  and 


30  THE  JOB  OF  SUPERVISION 

organization  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  courses  supervised. 
The  same  thing  is  true  in  reference  to  the  other  activities. 
He  cannot  do  a  complete  piece  of  work  if  any  of  the  activi- 
ties enumerated  are  omitted.  The  relation  of  each  of  these 
activities  to  the  finished  product  of  each  of  the  two  types  of 
supervisory  situations  will  become  more  and  more  apparent 
as  the  method,  devices,  and  technique  are  worked  out  in 
definite  detail. 

The  supervisory  job  of  the  administrator.  The  fact  that 
the  superintendent,  assistant  superintendent,  supervising 
principal,  and  building  principal,  as  has  already  been 
pointed  out,  will  have  to  undertake  in  many  school  systems 
whatever  is  attempted  in  the  way  of  supervision,  makes 
clear  at  once  the  impossibility  of  any  one  of  these  officials 
carrying  out  so  comprehensive  a  program  of  supervising 
activities  as  has  been  set  forth  above.  The  administrator, 
in  such  cases,  must  necessarily  select  those  activities  that 
are  most  important  and  possible  in  the  particular  situation. 
Then,  by  concentrating  upon  a  few  things,  he  will  be  able  to 
make  a  material  improvement  in  the  work  of  his  teachers. 
If  the  same  teaching  force  is  retained  practically  intact  year 
after  year,  the  administrator  can  work  intensively  upon 
different  supervisory  activities  each  year.  This  plan  will 
accomplish  much  better  results  than  can  be  secured  by  un- 
dertaking to  carry  on  all  of  the  activities  each  year,  and  by 
so  doing  give  only  a  meager  amount  of  time  to  each. 

Another  plan  may  be  followed  in  systems  where  the  teach- 
ing force  remains  relatively  the  same  year  after  year.  This 
plan  is  that  of  supervising  closely  the  work  of  one  group  of 
teachers  one  year  and  that  of  another  group  the  next,  and  so 
on  around.  For  example,  the  work  of  the  first  three  grades 
might  be  supervised  one  year,  the  intermediate  grades  the 
next  year,  and  the  junior  high  school  the  next.  The  plan 
would  need  to  be  modified  according  to  the  size  of  the  school 


SUPERVISING  ACTIVITIES  31 

systems.  In  a  fairly  large  system  each  grade  group  of  teach- 
ers might  be  as  large  a  group  as  could  well  be  worked  with 
during  a  year.  In  smaller  systems  the  teachers  might  very 
well  be  handled  in  two  groups  in  successive  years. 

Another  plan  would  be  to  divide  the  teachers  into  groups, 
as  has  just  been  suggested,  and  then  work  intensively  a 
month  with  each  group  in  succession  throughout  the  year- 
There  could  also  be  grouping  within  the  grade  groups  so 
that  those  who  most  needed  the  help  of  supervision  would 
get  the  most.  The  best-trained  teachers,  for  example,  and 
those  who  had  worked  longest  with  the  administrator,  would 
likely  need  less  of  supervisory  assistance  than  the  others. 

A  still  further  plan  would  be  that  of  undertaking  the  su- 
pervision of  the  teaching  of  certain  subjects  one  year,  and 
other  subjects  another  year,  and  so  on.  For  example,  the 
teaching  of  geography  and  history  might  be  given  the  great- 
est emphasis  one  year,  reading  and  spelling  another  year, 
language  and  grammar  another  year,  arithmetic  and  man- 
ual arts  another  year,  and  the  other  subjects  another  year. 
This  plan  might  be  combined  with  one  of  the  above  plans 
according  to  the  size  of  the  school  system.  For  instance,  in 
some  systems  the  supervision  of  reading  and  spelling  hi  just 
the  primary  grades  might  well  be  all  that  could  be  under- 
taken seriously  during  a  year. 

The  administrator  who  is  trained  thoroughly  for  the  job 
of  supervision  will  be  able  to  determine  the  best  plan  to  fol- 
low in  his  particular  situation  and  to  initiate  a  constructive 
program  of  supervision  that  will  extend  over  several  years. 
He  can  then  set  forth  his  program  to  his  school  board  and  to 
his  corps  of  teachers.  By  undertaking  each  year  only  that 
which  can  be  reasonably  accomplished,  and  by  intensive, 
thorough  work,  he  can  demonstrate  the  value  of  the  super- 
vision undertaken  and  show  genuine  progress  toward  greater 
efficiency  in  the  schools. 


32  THE  JOB  OF  SUPERVISION 

Chapter  summary.  The  supervisor  must  carry  out  eight 
distinct  pieces  of  work.  He  must  lay  the  basis  for  effective 
cooperative  teaching;  select  and  organize  the  subject-mat- 
ter of  courses  of  study;  teach  for  purposes  of  demonstration 
and  experimentation;  direct  systematic  observation;  direct 
the  teaching  activities  of  his  teachers;  check  up  the  progress 
made  by  the  pupils;  measure  the  efficiency  and  progress  of 
his  teachers;  and  measure  the  efficiency  of  his  own  super- 
vising performances.  The  performance  of  these  various 
pieces  of  work  demands  thorough  training  pointed  specifi- 
cally to  these  distinct  activities. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  points  of  contact  between  the  supervisor  and  his  teach- 
ers that  demand  cooperation. 

2.  Construct  a  set  of  suggestions  that  would  help  one  in  justifying  his 
selection  and  organization  of  subject-matter  in  any  subject. 

3.  Name  five  teaching  possibilities  or  problems  that  supervisors  might 
well  experiment  with  in  their  teaching. 

4.  Estimate  the  amount  of  time  that  should  be  distributed  to  each  of  the 
eight  supervising  activities  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly  in  an  ele- 
mentary school. 

5.  Estimate  the  amount  that  should  be  distributed  to  each  of  the  eight 
supervising  activities  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly  in  a  secondary 
school. 


PART  II 

PRINCIPLES  UNDERLYING  THE  SUPERVISION 
OF  INSTRUCTION 


SECTION  A 
SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

CHAPTER  III 
THE  FIRST  PRINCIPLE  OF  METHOD 

Necessity  for  common  knowledge.  The  first  principle  of 
method  is  that  the  supervisor  and  the  teachers  who  work 
under  his  direction  must  possess  common  knowledge,  aiid 
hold  common  points  of  view  concerning  the  school  situation 
in  which  they  are  working  together. 

The  most  important  general  aspects  that  are  found  in  any 
school  situation  are  suggested  below. 

I.  The  school  as  to  its 

A.  Fundamental  purpose 

B.  Place  in  the  educational  systems  and 

C.  Curriculum 
II.  Pupils  as  to  their 

A.  Dominant  physiological  characteristics 

B.  Psychological  traits  and  characteristic  tendencies;  and 

C.  Social  status  and  outlook 

HI.  General  principles  of  method  of  teaching;  and 
IV.  Method  of  teaching  the  particular  subject  or  subjects 
V.  General  principles  of  devices 
VI.  General  principles  of  technique 
VII.  Standards  for  judging  the  results  of  teaching 
VIII.  Relations  that  the  teacher  and  supervisor  are  to  bear  to  the 
pupils  being  taught,  and  to  the  administrator  in  matters  of 
management 

IX.  Relations  that  should  exist  between  supervisor  and  teacher; 
that  is,  the  purpose  and  service  that  the  supervisor  is  to 
accomplish 

Teaching  a  cooperative  enterprise.  The  validity  of  this 
first  principle  is  grounded  in  the  idea  that  teaching  under 


36  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

supervision  is  a  cooperative  enterprise;  therefore  each  party 
to  the  undertaking  must  possess  the  means  by  which  genu- 
ine cooperation  may  be  accomplished.  Teacher  and  super- 
visor must  come  to  think  in  similar  terms,  and  to  talk  the 
same  language  in  the  interchange  of  ideas.  That  is  to  say, 
they  must  see,  think,  and  talk  about  the  same  points  or 
problems.  They  cannot  well  do  this  if  they  do  not  start  out 
together  with  a  definite  understanding  of  what  they  are 
seeking  to  do,  and  agree  as  to  exactly  how  they  will  under- 
take to  get  it  done. 

If  the  student-teacher,  or  the  regular  teacher,  is  lacking  in 
knowledge  of  fundamental  facts  and  principles,  he  cannot 
understand  the  suggestions  of  the  supervisor,  and  very  often 
the  criticisms  will  seem  quite  harsh  and  unjust.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  Supervisor  does  not  know  what  the  teacher 
has  in  mind,  he  cannot  have  a  sympathetic  attitude  toward 
the  teaching  performance.  If  the  teacher  holds  one  point  of 
view  and  the  supervisor  holds  one  radically  different,  then 
very  little  beneficial  results  can  come  from  the  work  of  the 
supervisor.  The  teacher  will  teach  in  accordance  with  his 
point  of  view,  and  the  supervisor  will  criticize  the  teaching 
from  his  point  of  view.  The  result  will  be  unsympathetic, 
caustic  criticisms  on  the  one  hand ;  and  resentful,  prejudiced 
antagonism  on  the  other.  Neither  the  teacher  nor  the  su- 
pervisor should  be  groping  around  in  the  dark  as  to  what 
the  other  has  in  mind  at  any  time,  and  most  of  all  they  should 
never  be  working  from  different  points  of  view  or  at  cross- 
purposes.  Therefore  both  teacher  and  supervisor  should  un- 
derstand the  full  significance  of  this  first  principle,  and  they 
should  seek  assiduously  to  make  its  realization  the  founda- 
tion upon  which  their  whole  cooperative  endeavor  rests. 

The  validity  of  this  principle  and  the  necessity  for  get- 
ting it  thoroughly  established  and  fully  realized  will  be 
brought  out  more  clearly  and  forcibly  by  a  somewhat  de- 


THE  FIRST  PRINCIPLE  OF  METHOD  37 

tailed  discussion  of  the  fundamental  facts  and  points  of 
view  that  may  well  be  taken  as  the  basis  for  cooperative 
teaching  in  an  elementary  school,  and  those  that  may  be 
taken  for  the  basis  of  cooperative  teaching  in  a  secondary 
school. 

Chapter  summary.  The  first  principle  in  supervision  is 
that  the  supervisor  and  the  teacher  must  possess  common 
knowledge  concerning  the  school  as  an  institution,  the  im- 
portant characteristics  of  the  pupils,  general  and  special 
principles  of  method,  principles  of  devices,  principles  of 
technique,  standards  for  measuring  the  results  of  teaching, 
relation  of  teacher  and  supervisor  to  management,  and  the 
specific  function  of  the  supervisor.  The  supervisor  is  chiefly 
responsible  for  securing  the  realization  of  this  principle  in  his 
work. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Give  two  or  more  cases  from  experience  in  which  the  teacher  and  su- 
pervisor held  antagonistic  views  concerning  the  purpose  of  the  ele- 
mentary school.     State  the  effect  upon  their  work. 

2.  Give  three  or  more  cases  from  experience  in  which  the  teacher  and 
supervisor  held  opposite  points  of  view  concerning  certain  psychologi- 
cal traits  of  children.     State  the  effect  upon  their  work. 

S.  Give  two  or  more  examples  from  experience  of  the  results  upon  the 
supervisor's  work  of  not  having  clear  distinctions  in  mind  between 
general  principles  and  special  principles  of  method. 

4.  Give  two  illustrations  of  the  results  upon  the  work  of  the  supervisor  of 
not  having  a  definite  idea  of  his  relation  to  problems  of  school  man- 
agement. 

5.  Give  two  or  more  illustrations  of  the  results  upon  the  work  of  the  su- 
pervisor of  having  an  autocratic  idea  concerning  his  relation  to  mat- 
ters of  management. 

6.  Give  three  cases  from  experience  in  which  neither  the  supervisor  nor 
the  teacher  had  any  clear-cut  conception  of  the  function  of  the  super- 
visor.    What  were  the  results? 

7.  Give  two  cases  from  experience  in  which  the  supervisor  regarded  his 
work  as  that  of  an  inspector,  and  assumed  no  responsibility  for  the 
improvement  of  his  teachers.     What  were  the  results? 

8.  Give  two  cases  from  experience  in  which  the  supervisor  regarded  his 
work  as  setting  tasks  for  teachers  to  perform.    What  were  the  remits? 


CHAPTER  IV 

PARTICULAR  BASIS  FOR  CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING 
IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

1.  The  elementary  school  as  an  institution 

The  purpose  of  the  elementary  school.  The  purpose  of 
the  elementary  school  is  to  administer  to  the  needs  of  child- 
hood. These  needs  are  intellectual,  physical,  moral,  and 
social.  The  intellectual  need  is  a  thorough  mastery  of  the 
fundamental  tools  of  learning,  and  an  accumulation  of  use- 
ful bodies  of  knowledge.  The  physical  need  is  stimulation 
of  normal,  healthy  growth  of  the  body,  safeguarding  the 
vital  sense  organs  against  undue  strain  and  development  of 
defects,  and  the  discovery  and  correction  of  physical  de- 
fects. The  moral  need  is  a  setting-up  and  maintaining  of 
recognized  standards  of  conduct  and  insistence  upon  obedi- 
ence to  rightful  authority.  The  social  need  is  an  organiza- 
tion of  group  activities  of  every  kind  that  belong  in  the  life 
of  the  public  school,  that  will  afford  opportunities  for  in- 
dividual responsibilities  and  individual  contributions  to  the 
activities  carried  on,  and  that  at  the  same  time  unify  the 
efforts  of  all  hi  the  final  accomplishing  of  group  purposes. 

This  conception  of  purpose,  as  stated  in  detail,  will  enable 
the  teacher  and  the  supervisor  to  point  their  efforts  to  spe- 
cific educational  problems  in  attempting  to  meet  the  needs 
of  children.  This  conception  will  become  clearer  as  one 
studies  the  characteristics  of  childhood  that  are  set  forth 
below.  The  importance,  however,  of  stating  and  agreeing 
even  tentatively  upon  the  specific  aspects  of  purpose  is 
obvious. 

The  place  of  the  elementary  school.     The  place  of  the 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  — ELEMENTARY      39 

elementary  school,  as  has  been  indicated  by  the  statement 
of  purpose,  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  scheme  of  systematic 
education.  The  elementary  school  is  the  school  for  chil- 
dren. The  home  is  the  school  of  infancy.  The  infant  is 
helpless  and  requires  parental  care.  Infancy  gives  way  to 
childhood  as  the  activities  of  the  individual  become  more 
and  more  controlled  and  self -directed.  Finally  the  individ- 
ual reaches  the  stage  of  development  where  he  can  profit  by 
systematic  efforts  and  organized  means  of  assisting  him  in 
acquiring  experience  and  training.  Children  of  four  and 
five  years  of  age  are  ready  for  a  modification  of  the  abso- 
lutely free,  spontaneous  life  that  they  have  been  leading, 
and  can  profit  by  such  systematic  organized  means  as  the 
kindergarten  affords  for  the  gradual  change  toward  a  well- 
ordered  regime  of  conduct. 

The  kindergarten  is  the  first  stage  of  the  elementary 
school.  It  should  be  adapted  to  administer  to  the  detailed 
needs,  already  set  forth,  of  children  of  ages  four  and  five. 
The  second  stage  of  the  elementary  school  is  the  primary. 
It  is  the  stage  in  which  the  systematic  mastery  of  the  funda- 
mental tools  of  learning  is  emphasized.  Definite  stages  of 
mastery  are  marked  out  and  their  accomplishment  seriously 
undertaken.  In  fact,  the  child  is  not  expected  to  pass  on 
to  the  next  stage  until  the  primary  stages  of  mastering  the 
elements  of  knowledge  are  satisfactorily  completed.  The 
third  stage  is  the  last  division  of  the  elementary  school  of 
the  present  time.  That  is  to  say,  the  general  trend  at  least 
of  educational  reorganization  is  in  the  direction  of  a  seven- 
or  eight-year  elementary  school,  beginning  with  a  kinder- 
garten of  one  or  two  years  and  ending  with  what  is  ordina- 
rily considered  the  sixth  year  of  the  elementary  school.  This 
last  stage,  then,  covers  what  are  usually  designated  as  the 
intermediate  grades,  or  grades  four,  five,  and  six.  This 
organization  of  the  field  of  the  elementary  school  is  based 


40  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

upon  the  psychological  evidence  that  childhood  is  giving 
way  to  adolescence,  or  the  secondary  period  of  human  de- 
velopment, at  about  eleven  years  of  age.  The  elementary 
school,  therefore,  should  complete  its  training  by  the  end  of 
the  present  sixth  grade;  that  is,  by  the  time  the  child  reaches 
twelve  years  of  age  and  is  passing  rapidly  into  the  adolescent 
stage  of  development.  The  secondary  school,  as  will  be 
shown  later,  should  begin  normally  at  this  age. 

Curriculum  of  the  elementary  school.  The  curriculum 
of  the  elementary  school,  as  has  been  indicated  by  the  state- 
ment of  purpose  and  place,  should  include  at  least  three 
important  aspects  of  subject-matter.  These  types  of  sub- 
ject-matter should  be  emphasized  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  enumerated,  as  follows :  fundamental  tools  of  learn- 
ing, fundamental  bodies  of  knowledge,  and  fundamental 
manual  arts.  The  tools  of  learning  are  reading,  arithme- 
tic, writing,  spelling,  and  language,  which  includes  compo- 
sition and  grammar.  The  fundamental  bodies  of  knowledge 
are  American  history,  geography,  history  and  current  knowl- 
edge of  trades  and  industries,  agriculture,  physiology,  and 
hygiene.  The  fundamental  manual  arts  are  manual  train- 
ing and  household  economics  or  home-making.  The  selec- 
tion of  the  subject-matter  for  each  of  these  phases  of  ele- 
mentary education  should  be  determined  by  the  mental 
characteristics  and  capabilities  of  childhood,  and  by  the 
degree  of  mastery  attained  in  each  grade  over  the  funda- 
mental tools  of  learning.  The  subject-matter  that  is  to  be 
employed  in  giving  the  pupils  mastery  over  these  tools  of 
learning  should  be  very  carefully  selected  and  graded  so  as 
to  give  it  a  progressive  development  of  complexity  and 
difficulty.  The  subject-matter  of  the  other  two  aspects  of 
training  should  be  selected  according  to  the  degree  of  mas- 
tery attained  over  the  fundamental  tools  of  learning,  so 
that  they  can  be  employed  to  advantage  in  mastering  the 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  —  ELEMENTARY      41 

fundamental  bodies  of  knowledge  and  manual  arts,  and  the 
subject-matter  of  these  divisions  should  also  be  selected 
according  to  the  mental  characteristics  and  tendencies  of 
childhood. 

2.  Pupils  of  the  elementary  school 

Dominant  physiological  characteristics.  The  dominant 
physiological  characteristics  of  childhood  are  as  follows: 

1.  Rapid  growth  of  the  brain  mass,  which  is  practically  full  grown 
at  ages  nine  and  ten. 

2.  Rapid  development  of  reflex  motor  coordinations. 

3.  Rapid  development  of  voluntary  motor  coordinations. 

4.  Spontaneous  motor  reactions  to  stimuli. 

5.  Active  sensory  processes. 

6.  Sense  organs  easily  strained  and  injured. 

7.  Relatively  rapid  changes  in  growth  of  the  cartilaginous  portions 
of  the  bones  into  osseous  tissue,  and  corresponding  tendency  to 
derangement  of  articulations  and  normal  bone  formation  due  to 
excessive  strain. 

8.  Susceptibility  to  colds,  and  to  the  so-called  children's  diseases. 

9.  Acute  sensitiveness  to  pain,  and  to  variations  from  normal  tem- 
perature of  atmosphere. 

These  physiological  characteristics  have  a  profound  bear- 
ing upon  the  problems  of  length  of  school  sessions,  length 
of  recitations,  frequency  and  length  of  play  intermissions, 
playground  activities,  lighting,  heating,  and  ventilating  of 
schoolrooms,  seating,  use  of  blackboards,  intensive  straining 
drills  and  exercises,  measures  of  discipline,  retardation  in 
mental  work,  acceleration  in  mental  work,  and  other  prob- 
lems of  the  more  general  management  of  the  school. 

Psychological  characteristics.  The  dominant  psychologi- 
cal characteristics  of  childhood  are  as  follows: 

1.  Extreme  suggestibility  of  the  physiological  and  motor  types. 

2.  Impulsive,  spontaneous  action  before  reflection  can  take  place. 

3.  Shifting  interests. 


42  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

4.  Certain  instincts  more  strongly  active  than  others.    The  most 
characteristic  ones  are: 

a.  Imitation,  particularly  of  unconscious  type. 

b.  Curiosity. 

c.  Self-satisfaction  or  selfishness. 

d.  Fear. 

e.  Play,  which  manifests  three  types,  namely,  individualistic, 
cooperative,  competitive. 

/.  Gregariousness,  or  gang  spirit. 
g.  Fight. 

h.  Approbation  and  friendliness. 
i.  Jealousy. 

5.  Imagination  of  fanciful  type  very  active.     This  is  often  mis- 
taken for  vicious,  premeditated  lying. 

6.  Credulity  very  great. 

7.  Volition  vacillating  and  easily  influenced. 

8.  Emotions  easily  excited,  but  impressions  fault  and  fleeting. 

Relation  of  these  characteristics  to  schoolroom  procedure. 
These  psychological  characteristics  have  a  definite  relation 
to  the  problems  of  length  of  recitations,  selection  of  devices, 
general  management,  and  selection  and  organization  of  sub- 
ject-matter. Take  imitation  for  example.  The  teacher 
and  supervisor  should  utilize  this  instinct  through  the  em- 
ployment of  devices  that  will  not  only  stimulate  uncon- 
scious imitation,  but  also  provide  for  opportunities  con- 
sciously to  imitate  correct  performances.  Moreover,  they 
should  be  careful  that,  particularly  in  the  moral  field,  the 
pupils  shall  have  worthy  models  and  standards  to  imitate. 
The  example  in  conduct  set  by  the  teacher  and  supervisor, 
for  instance,  should  be  of  the  character  that  stimulates  imi- 
tation, and  that  when  imitated  leads  to  wholesome  results. 
Many  opportunities  arise  in  the  teaching  of  the  elementary- 
school  subjects  for  utilizing  imitation  through  proper  de- 
vices, and  through  the  technique  of  the  teacher.  The 
teacher  and  supervisor  should  not  only  have  these  psycho- 
logical characteristics  definitely  in  mind,  but  they  should 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  —  ELEMENTARY       43 

also  have  a  definite  understanding  as  to  the  specific  ways  in 
which  these  various  traits  and  tendencies  can  be  utilized  in 
teaching.  The  supervisor  should  work  out  a  detailed  list  of 
such  possible  utilizations,  according  to  the  grade,  and  the 
subject-matter  of  the  subjects  being  taught.  This  will  give 
the  teacher  an  opportunity  to  understand  the  supervisor's 
point  of  view  and  to  work  in  agreement  with  it. 

Social  status  of  children.  The  children  of  the  elementary 
school  are  dependents.  They  are  not  called  upon  by  society 
to  perform  social  activities  of  real  vital  significance.  In 
fact,  society  tends  to  foster  helplessness  and  dependency  in 
childhood  by  providing  everything  for  the  children  and  giv- 
ing them  nothing  to  say  about  what  shall  be  provided.  The 
school  affords  an  opportunity  for  stimulating  personal  re- 
sponsibility and  for  giving  individuals  social  problems  to 
solve.  The  right  of  childhood  to  social  recognition  can  be 
provided  for  in  recitation  work,  on  the  playground,  and  in 
general  group  life  of  the  school.  Teacher  and  supervisor 
should  agree  upon  the  definite  types  of  social  situations  that 
the  particular  school  situation  affords,  and  agree  upon  the 
provisions  that  should  be  made  for  according  children  whole- 
some kinds  of  social  recognition. 

Chapter  summary.  The  particular  basis  for  cooperative 
teaching  in  the  elementary  school  involves:  an  agreement 
that  the  purpose  of  the  elementary  school  is  to  equip  pupils 
with  the  fundamental  tools  of  learning;  that  the  place  of  the 
elementary  school  is  that  of  the  first  or  childhood  school,  and 
that  the  curriculum  should  include  the  fundamental  tools  of 
learning,  fundamental  bodies  of  knowledge,  and  fundamen- 
tal manual  arts;  an  understanding  of  the  important  physio- 
logical and  psychological  characteristics  of  childhood,  and 
the  social  status  and  outlook  of  children  during  this  period. 
These  principles  must  be  applied  to  concrete  individual 
cases  in  order  to  make  them  effective  in  dealing  with  children. 


44  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Name  at  least  five  group  activities  that  normally  belong  to  elemen- 
tary-school life,  and  indicate  their  essential  characteristics. 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  first  lines  of  training  that  should  be  taken  up 
systematically  in  the  kindergarten? 

8.  Name  at  least  five  reflex  motor  coordinations  that  are  developed  fully 
in  childhood. 

4.  Name  five  voluntary  motor  coordinations  that  are  developed  during 
the  period  of  childhood. 

5.  Give  in  detail  two  illustrations  of  spontaneous  motor  reactions  of 
children,  that  have  come  under  your  observation. 

6.  What  proofs  can  you  give  that  the  child's  sensory  processes  are  very 
active? 

7.  Give  at  least  two  examples  of  injury  to  children's  sense  organs,  that 
you  have  observed,  that  could  have  been  avoided. 

8.  Give  specific  examples  of  malformations  of  bodily  growth  that  have 
been  due  to  improper  school  conditions. 

9.  Give  two  examples  of  childish  conduct  that  were  due  to  physiological 
suggestion. 

10.  Give  two  examples  of  childish  conduct  that  were  due  to  impulsiveness 
and  lack  of  reflection. 

11.  Give  three  examples  of  how  childish  interests  shift. 

12.  Give  two  examples  of  the  use  of  unconscious  imitation  in  school  work. 
Give  two  examples  of  the  use  of  conscious  imitation. 

13.  What  types  of  play  are  most  emphasized  in  childhood?     Give  exam- 
ples. 

14.  How  can  the  gang  spirit  be  capitalized  to  good  advantage  in  the  ele- 
mentary school? 

15.  How  can  the  instinct  to  fight  be  used  to  advantage  in  teaching  the 
elementary-school  subjects? 

16.  Give  five  examples  of  children's  lies  and  explain  the  psychology  in- 
volved. 

17.  Illustrate  some  of  the  ways  in  which  teachers  unintentionally  play 
upon  the  credulity  of  children. 

18.  What  is  the  chief  problem  presented  to  the  teacher  by  the  vacillating 
will  of  the  child? 


CHAPTER  V 

PARTICULAR  BASIS  FOR  CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING 
IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL 

1.  The  secondary  school 

The  purpose  of  the  secondary  school.  The  purpose  of  the 
secondary  school  is  to  administer  to  every  phase  of  growth 
and  development  of  adolescent  boys  and  girls  during  their 
secondary  period  of  existence.  In  other  words,  the  second- 
ary school  is  the  chief  agency  for  maturing  adolescent  hu- 
man beings  mentally,  morally,  and  physically.  The  needs 
of  these  young  people  are  determined  primarily  by  the 
dominant  mental  traits  and  tendencies  and  the  critical 
physiological  changes  which  come  during  the  secondary 
period  of  human  life;  and  their  needs  are  determined  second- 
arily by  the  present  and  future  demands  made  upon  them 
by  society  as  productive,  reliable,  useful  citizens.  Fortu- 
nately the  good  of  the  individual  and  the  good  of  society  are 
not  antagonistic.  Therefore,  the  best  welfare  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  best  interests  of  society  can  be  secured  simul- 
taneously by  the  proper  selection,  organization,  administra- 
tion, and  teaching  of  subject-matter  that  meets  the  needs  of 
adolescent  boys  and  girls.  That  is  to  say,  adolescent  boys 
and  girls  can  be  brought  up  to  fully  developed  and  well- 
balanced  maturity  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  live  sane, 
productive  lives,  and  at  the  same  time  under  the  same  train- 
ing they  can  be  prepared  to  take  on  some  form  of  specialized 
training  in  college,  if  they  so  choose,  or  to  enter  some  useful 
occupation. 

The  purpose  of  the  secondary  school  may  be  stated  some- 
what more  definitely  by  comparing  it  with  the  purpose  of 


46  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

the  elementary  school  and  the  purpose  of  the  college  or  uni- 
versity. The  purpose  of  the  elementary  school  is  to  give 
children  the  fundamental  tools  of  knowledge.  The  college 
or  university  is  to  give  students  a  rather  highly  specialized 
training  that  will  fit  them  to  do  certain  specific  things  with  a 
high  degree  of  efficiency.  The  secondary  school  is  to  de- 
velop every  physical,  mental,  and  moral  faculty  of  adoles- 
cents to  such  degree  that  they  may  find  their  greatest  possi- 
bilities, and  make  an  intelligent  selection  of  their  work  for 
life.  It  is  the  laboratory  in  which  the  human  material  for 
future  society's  building  is  to  be  thoroughly  tested,  accu- 
rately selected,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  vocationally 
directed  and  trained. 

The  purpose  stated  negatively.  The  purpose  of  the  sec- 
ondary school  may  also  be  stated  negatively,  in  order  to  get 
away  from  certain  traditional  conceptions  on  the  one  hand 
and  certain  modern  conceptions  on  the  other.  The  second- 
ary school  is  not  a  preparatory  school  for  colleges  and  uni- 
versities. Graduates  of  the  secondary  school,  however, 
should  be  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  in  colleges  and 
universities  if  they  choose  to  enter  these  institutions. 
Again  the  secondary  school  is  not  a  trade  school.  Gradu- 
ates, however,  should  be  able  to  enter  certain  trades  and  in- 
dustries with  little  or  no  further  special  training.  Finally 
the  secondary  school  is  not  a  place  in  which  individuals  are 
to  follow  haphazard,  one-sided  lines  of  study.  Human  life 
is  complex  and  interests  are  manifold;  hence  the  develop- 
ment of  minor  traits  and  tendencies  is  as  necessary  as  the 
development  of  the  most  promising  talents  that  individuals 
possess.  The  secondary  school  must  seek  to  organize  the 
growths  and  developments  of  the  many  aspects  of  human 
activities  into  definite,  matured  results;  hence  it  must  not 
be  an  opportunistic  school.  Natural  interests  and  native 
Capacities  should,  however,  be  given  opportunity  for  de- 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  —  SECONDARY        47 

velopment  along  lines  of  least  resistance.  The  secondary 
school,  then,  is  no  one  of  these  types  in  particular,  but  it  is 
all  of  them  with  equal  emphasis. 

The  place  of  the  secondary  school.  The  place  of  the 
secondary  school  in  the  whole  scheme  of  education  is,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  statement  of  purpose,  between  the  elemen- 
tary school,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  college  or  university,  or 
entrance  into  some  vocation,  on  the  other.  It  is  the  school 
for  adolescents,  and  since  the  range  in  age  for  the  adolescent 
period  is  approximately  from  eleven  or  twelve  to  twenty  or 
twenty -one,  it  should  cover  a  period  of  at  least  six  years,  and 
possibly  seven  or  eight.  This  means  that  the  secondary 
school  should  begin  at  the  close  of  the  six-year  elementary 
school,  and  continue  through  a  period  that  shall  be  long 
enough  to  bring  those  who  graduate  from  its  courses  up  to  a 
desired  degree  of  maturity  and  to  prepare  them  for  entrance 
into  some  higher  school  for  special  training,  or  to  enter  upon 
some  useful  vocation.  Under  present  conditions  a  six-year 
period  seems  to  be  fairly  adequate.  As  the  elementary 
school  succeeds  more  and  more  in  equipping  the  pupils,  who 
complete  its  curriculum,  with  the  fundamental  tools  of 
learning  and  gives  more  and  more  thorough  mastery  over 
essential  bodies  of  knowledge,  and  as  the  secondary  school 
succeeds  in  bringing  its  pupils  up  through  its  courses  with- 
out loss  of  time,  the  time  will  soon  arrive  when  practically 
all  of  the  graduates  from  the  secondary  school  will  have 
completed  the  required  fifteen  or  sixteen  units  of  credit  be- 
fore they  have  reached  full  mature  development.  This 
fact,  and  the  fact  that  the  first  two  years  of  college  work  are 
general  in  character  and  intended  to  help  students  find 
themselves  in  order  that  they  may  make  a  wise  selection  of 
some  line  of  specialization,  seem  to  point  in  the  direction  of 
an  extension  of  the  time  spent  in  the  secondary  school  to  a 
period  of  seven  or  eight  years,  or,  in  other  words,  so  that 


48  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

the  first  two  years  of  college  work  will  be  included  in  the 
curriculum  of  the  secondary  school. 

Agreement  upon  this  point  of  view  is  important,  espe- 
cially for  the  reason  that  it  enables  the  teacher  and  super- 
visor to  determine  definitely  the  kind  and  degree  of  training 
that  may  reasonably  be  expected  from  the  elementary 
school  as  a  basis  for  taking  up  secondary-school  subjects. 
It  is  also  important  in  keeping  constantly  before  the  teacher 
and  supervisor  the  various  future  possibilities  of  the  pupils 
after  they  have  reached  mature  years.  This  point  of  view 
broadens  the  perspective  of  those  who  undertake  really  to 
educate  adolescent  boys  and  girls,  and  helps  to  keep  atten- 
tion centered  on  the  boys  and  girls  themselves.  If  this 
point  of  view  is  clearly  comprehended  and  strictly  adhered 
to,  then  the  efforts  of  both  teacher  and  supervisor  will  be 
properly  placed  at  all  tunes.  The  secondary  school  will 
neither  assume  the  role  of  the  elementary  school  in  its  first 
years  nor  the  place  of  the  adult  school  in  its  upper  years,  but 
it  will  properly  place  its  efforts  in  dealing  with  beginning 
adolescence,  distinctive  adolescence,  and  maturing  adoles- 
cence. 

The  beginning  stage  of  adolescence.  This  extends  ap- 
proximately from  eleven  to  thirteen  inclusive.  The  boys 
and  girls  during  this  period  manifest  many  of  the  tendencies 
of  full  adolescence.  The  school  must  adjust  its  require- 
ments in  scholastic  attainment  to  meet  both  of  these  phases 
of  the  pupil's  nature.  The  traits  of  childhood  should  disap- 
pear under  the  training  of  the  school,  and  the  growing  tend- 
encies of  the  more  fully  developed  adolescent  individual 
must  be  recognized  and  utilized  to  the  best  advantage. 
These  pupils  must  be  given  sympathetic  consideration  when 
they  do  absolutely  childish  things,  and  again  they  should  be 
given  courteous,  respectful  treatment  when  they  try  to  act 
like  older  people.  They  will  have  their  times  of  feeling  very 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  — SECONDARY        49 

wise  and  important.  They  should  be  consulted  to  a  suffi- 
cient degree  to  make  them  feel  the  thrill  of  personal  respon- 
sibility. On  the  other  hand,  they  should  not  be  given  too 
full  rein  and  not  too  much  consideration  for  fear  of  spoiling 
the  effect  of  proper  social  recognition. 

The  second  period  of  adolescent  development.  This  ex- 
tends from  about  fourteen  to  seventeen  inclusive.  This  is 
the  period  of  deepest  stress  and  strain.  The  individual  is 
for  the  most  part  very  little  inclined  to  feel  like  a  child,  but 
is  practically  all  the  time  seeing  his  relation  to  the  world  in 
terms  of  adult  responsibility.  The  adolescent  youth  does 
exhibit  very  many  childish  points  of  view  in  meeting  situa- 
tions that  arise,  and  is  far  from  having  the  adult  conception 
of  most  things,  but  the  individual  must  be  given  much  the 
same  recognition  that  would  be  accorded  an  adult  under 
similar  circumstances.  In  other  words,  the  adolescent  at 
this  period  of  development  should  never  be  treated  as  a 
child.  This  does  not  mean  that  he  can  or  should  be  left 
entirely  to  his  own  devices,  and  allowed  to  make  his  own 
choices  and  decide  all  the  issues  that  come  up.  Indeed, 
quite  the  contrary.  The  youth  must  be  kept  face  to  face 
with  the  fundamental  problems.  While  he  should  be  held 
responsible  to  do  things,  the  teacher  and  supervisor  are  re- 
sponsible to  see  that  he  is  made  responsible  and  also  that  he 
meets  his  responsibility.  This  seems  like  a  paradox,  and  yet 
it  is  true  that  the  youth  must  be  made  responsible  for  his 
conduct  and  at  the  same  time  he  must  be  made  to  fulfill  his 
responsibility. 

The  third  stage  of  adolescence.  This  extends  from  eight- 
een on  to  twenty  or  twenty-one  inclusive.  This  is  the  stage 
during  which  the  responsibility  can  and  should  be  shifted  to 
considerable  degree  to  the  individual  himself.  The  young 
man  and  woman  at  this  period  should  begin  to  have  definite 
ideas  about  their  future  work  and  training.  They  should 


60  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

be  given  very  large  opportunities  to  seek  advice  and  obtain 
definite  information  concerning  the  different  electives  and 
the  things  toward  which  they  lead.  Moreover,  the  subjects 
that  are  adapted  to  pupils  of  this  stage  of  development 
should  have  tangible  values  that  are  readily  recognized  and 
worth  while.  One  of  the  problems  of  secondary  education 
is  to  define  every  subject  in  the  whole  curriculum  in  terms 
of  definitely  recognized  values,  but  especially  does  this  need 
to  be  done  in  regard  to  those  subjects  that  are  offered  only 
to  upper-class  pupils,  and  the  subjects  that  now  constitute 
the  preliminary  college  courses  for  the  first  two  years.  The 
school  should  begin,  through  giving  opportunities  for  choice 
of  subjects,  to  test  the  maturity  of  the  pre-adult  youth. 
Definite  indications  of  maturity  of  purposes,  maturity  of 
thinking,  and  maturity  of  behaving  should  be  manifested  by 
this  group  of  adolescents,  and  the  school  should  show  that  it 
expects  to  find  these  evidences  in  its  own  product. 

The  curriculum.  The  two  demands  set  forth  above,  that 
are  insistent  upon  the  secondary  school,  can  be  realized 
only  by  proper  selection,  organization,  administration,  and 
teaching  of  subject-matter.  The  selection  of  fields  of  sub- 
ject-matter or  subjects  should  be  guided  by  at  least  four 
considerations;  namely,  the  character  and  extent  of  the  ele- 
mentary-school training  that  may  be  reasonably  pre-sup- 
posed  as  a  foundation  for  secondary-school  education,  the 
character  and  extent  of  the  special  lines  of  training  from 
which  the  students  may  choose  upon  entering  college  or 
university,  the  lines  of  industry  and  vocations  upon  which 
one  may  enter  without  making  extended  special  prepara- 
tion, and  the  dominant  mental,  moral,  and  physical  traits 
and  tendencies  of  adolescents  at  the  three  recognized  levels 
of  adolescent  development. 

This  means  that  practically  every  phase  of  manual,  lit- 
erary, linguistic,  scientific,  and  artistic  training  should  i  be 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACfiWG  —'SECONDARY       31 

found  in  the  curriculum  of  the;  secondary  sehooh  The  or- 
ganization, administration,  and  teaching  of  the  subject- 
matter  within  each  subject  should  be  determined  almost 
wholly  by  the  central  purpose  for  which  the  human  race  has 
brought  the  subject-matter  into  existence,  and  by  the  domi- 
nant characteristics  and-  tendencies  df  adolescence  at  what- 
ever level  of  adolescent  development  the  group  studying  the 
subject  may  be1. '  Young  people  should  ultimately  dome  to 
an?  understanding  and  an  appreciation  of  the 'Conventional 
significance  which  attaches  to  all  subject-matter!  They 
should  approach  this  conventional* Value;  -however,  psycho- 
logically rather  than  historically  or  otherwise. 

The  psychological  approach.  The  approach  to  the  con- 
ventional significance -of  subject-matter  must  proceed  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  immature  mind  as  the  starting- 
point,  and,  through  carefully  graded  steps  of  increasing  diffi- 
culty and  complexity,  develop  the  thinking  of  the  individual 
up  to  the  mature  or  conventional  point  of  view.  This  de- 
velopment of  the  maturing  mind  through  the  conventional 
significance  of  the  subject-matter  should  come  as  a  growth 
and  development  of  the  thinking  of  the  individual,  and  no 
attempt  should  be  made  to  force  the  adult  point  of  view 
upon  the  adolescent  mind.  The  psychological  approach, 
then,  means  beginning  with  the  interest  that  the  immature 
individual  has  in  the  problem,  and  with  the  simpler,  more 
fundamental  aspects  of  it  that  fall  within  the  range  of  ado- 
lescent experience.  The  problem  is  to  extend  this  experi- 
ence until  the  adult  or  conventional  point  of  view  is  inter- 
esting and  natural  to  assume. 

The  road  over  which  the  adolescent  youth  of  to-day  may 
travel  to  reach  the  mature  appreciation  of  the  value  of  things 
need  not  be  the  same  road  of  actual  sequence  or  experiences 
through  which  the  race  has  passed.  Modern  conditions 
short-cut  the  route  to  many  things.  Many  problems  that 


52  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

engrossed  the  attention  of  the  race  for  years  are  now  taken 
as  a  matter  of  course  by  the  youth.  Therefore  the  historical 
approach  to  many  modern  problems  is  tedious,  and  not  only 
uninteresting,  but  even  valueless.  The  principles  involved 
in  many  problems  are  the  same  as  those  involved  in  the 
same  types  of  problems  of  past  decades,  but  the  conditions 
under  which  these  problems  now  arise  are  so  vastly  changed 
that  the  old  or  historical  approach  is  not  of  interest  or  value. 
By  psychological  approach,  then,  is  meant  the  most  direct 
road  over  which  the  adolescent  individual  may  grow  from 
an  immature  appreciation  of  the  values  of  subject-matter  to 
a  full  understanding  and  appreciation  of  the  values  that  are 
now  conventionally  accepted  as  of  most  worth. 

The  purpose  of  the  studies.  The  curriculum  of  the  sec- 
ondary school  must  be  regarded  as  a  means  to  an  end,  and 
not  the  end  itself.  The  study  of  any  subject  should  contrib- 
ute to  the  education  of  the  student;  that  is,  to  the  maturing 
of  the  student's  mental  habits.  The  study  of  French,  for 
example,  should  result  in  the  maturing  of  one's  linguistic 
habits.  French  thus  becomes  the  means  of  education,  and 
not  the  end.  If  teacher  and  supervisor  hold  this  point  of 
view  they  will  be  more  anxious  about  the  maturing  of  defi- 
nite linguistic  habits  than  about  the  development  of  the 
subject.  The  matter  of  covering  so  many  rules  and  princi- 
ples in  grammar,  or  of  reading  so  many  pages  of  literary 
material  in  the  foreign  language,  will  no  longer  be  the  guide 
and  standard  that  impel  the  hurrying  along  in  order  that 
the  traditional  ground  may  be  gone  over.  On  the  contrary, 
the  question  that  will  be  uppermost  all  the  time  will  be, 
What  is  the  study  of  French  doing  to  the  linguistic  habits  of 
the  student?  The  fact  is  that  the  future  intelligence  of  the 
student  will  not  be  greatly  affected  by  the  failure  to  remem- 
ber French  vocabulary  and  grammatical  rules,  and  that  the 
student  who  acquires  but  little  facility  in  the  use  of  the 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  — SECONDARY        53 

French  language  will,  in  a  very  large  number  of  cases,  make 
as  much  use  in  after  life  of  the  education  that  he  received 
from  the  study  of  the  language  as  the  best  student  in  the 
class  will  make  of  the  education  he  receives  from  the  study. 
The  important  question  is  whether  or  not  each  student 
acquired  the  fullest  amount  of  mental  development  that 
was  possible  for  him  to  receive  from  the  study  of  the  lan- 
guage. If  this  has  been  accomplished,  then  the  teaching  of 
French  has  resulted  hi  the  education  of  both  types  of  stu- 
dents. 

Thinking  in  terms  of  the  student.  The  importance  of 
holding  to  this  point  of  view,  not  merely  agreeing  to  it,  can- 
not, in  the  writer's  judgment,  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 
Teacher  and  supervisor  are  inclined  to  think  in  terms  of  the 
subject  instead  of  in  terms  of  the  student.  Subject-matter 
has  been  standardized  instead  of  the  stages  of  mental  ma- 
turity of  students.  The  teacher  and  supervisor  have  been 
dealing  with  the  subject  so  long  that  it  has  become  a  familiar 
acquaintance;  hence  it  has  become  more  or  less  a  sacred 
thing.  The  subject  has  become  a  habit  with  them;  it  is  re- 
garded as  something  permanent  and  abiding;  hence  to  leave 
out  any  of  the  sacred  facts  seems  almost  sacrilegious  and 
criminal.  On  the  other  hand,  the  student  is  transient. 
Students  come  and  students  go;  hence  to  leave  the  student 
out  is  justifiable.  In  fact,  leaving  the  student  out  may  be 
getting  rid  of  an  unappreciative  butcher  who  haggles  and 
mangles  the  sacred  subject  most  horribly  in  his  attempts  to 
find  food  for  mental  maturing.  The  relief  that  is  usually 
manifested  by  teachers  and  supervisors  when  the  student 
who  is  not  "  getting  on  "  in  the  subject  drops  out  is  a  defi- 
nite indication  that  the  subject  is  more  important  to  them 
than  is  the  student.  Whenever  teachers  and  supervisors 
begin  talking  about  education  by  means  of  the  subject 
"  getting  on  "  in  the  student  instead  of  the  student "  getting 


64       4 ,  ,T ...,      SUPERVISORY  METHOD .,  ,.,,. 

on  "  in  the  subject,  then  a  radical  change  will  come  about  in 
the  teaching  in  secondary  schools. 

i  '•••»'>         i  •          i        '•**  '  '         *  •  '  * 

2.   The  pupils  of  the  secondary  school 

Traits  and  tendencies.  The  points  that  require  common 
agreement  are  those  concerning  the  dominant  physiological 
and  psychological  traits  and  tendencies  of  adolescent  boys 
and  girls  and  their  social  status  and  outlook.  The  teacher 
arid  supervisor  must  not  only  recognize  the  "fundamental 
facts  as  to  what  these  traits  and  tendencies  are,  but  they 
must  see  the  direct  bearing  that  they  have  upon  the  educa- 
tional activities  of  the  secondary-school  pupils.  The  sig- 
nificance of  the  three  sets  of  facts  for  educational  practice 
can  best  be  realized  by  enumerating  them  in  separate  lists, 
and  then  discussing  the  most  important  bearings  that  they 
have  upon  the  work  of  the  teacher  and  supervisor. 

Physiological  traits.  The  most  important  physiological 
traits  of  adolescents  are  as  follows: 

1 .  Rapid  functioning  of  higher  brain  centers. 

2.  Excess  of  energy  and  restless,  excessive  physical  activities  at 
v- times,  and  extreme  Sluggishness  and  averseiiess  to  any  sort  of 

physical  effort  at  other  times*,  ,,..;.:,   v  ... 

8.  Alternate  periods  of  §lpw  bodily  grpwth,  which  are  attended, 
respectively,  by  relatively,  slow  and  rapid,  mental  progress.  .;_, 

4.  Completion  of  practically  all  of  tfre  coordinations  that  the  in- 
dividual will'^ver  possess. 

5.>  -Extremely  awkward,  Ungainly,  and  bungling  •general  coordina- 
'•  .tions,  but  great  .facility  for  forming  specific  finer,  coordinations. 

6.  Enormpus  increase,  in  the.  size  pf  the  heaijt.an,d  jji  ^Jood  pressure. 

7.  Profound,  organic  changes  due  to  the  maturing  pf  the  sex  organs. 

*  Psychological  characteristics.    The  significant  psycholog- 
ical characteristics  are  as  follows:    ->  •> 

11  Mental, 'embtional,  moral,  and  motor  habit  formation,  rela- 
tively rapid  and  permanent. 
2.  Manifestation  and;  relatively  rapid  development  of  many  in- 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  — SECONDARY        55 

stincts  which  take  on  new  significance  for  the  individual  during 
this  period.    The  most  important  of  these  are: 

a.  Self-assertion  and  individuality. 

b.  Social  recognition  and  prestige. 

c.  Attraction  toward  the  opposite  sex. 

d.  Rivalry  and  emulation.  . 

e.  Spirit  of  romance  and  love  of  adventure. 
/.  Pugnacity  and  love  of  combat. 

g.  Acquisition  of  material  possessions. 

h.  Leadership  and  fellowship. 

t.  Display  and  desire  to  attract  attention,  and  their  opposites. 

j.  Tendency  to  tease. 

k.  Play  of  the  motor,  intellectual,  emotional,  and  volitional 

types. 

8.  General  uncertainty  of  intellectual,  emotional,  and  moral  be- 
havior, which  is  manifested  by  their: 

a.  Uncertainty  of  choices  of  subjects  and  future  vocations. 

b.  Tendency  to  follow  what  seem  to  be  the  lines  of  least  re- 
sistance. 

c.  Rashness  in  deciding  important  matters  upon  very  meager 
and  insufficient  data. 

d.  Fickleness  of  purpose  and  vacillation  of  will  power  hi  the 
face  of  difficulties. 

e.  Extreme  stubbornness  at  times,  and  at  other  tunes  un- 
usual meekness, 

/.  Tendency  to  be  hysterical  hi  critical  situations,  or  to  be 
exceedingly  cool,  indifferent,  and  self-contained. 

g.  Tendency  to  be  bold,  to  bluff,  and  to  take  long  chances,  or 
to  evade,  to  prevaricate,  conceal,  and  use  soft  solder. 

h.  High  susceptibility  to  suggestion  and  vivid  power  of  imag- 
ination, which  often  leads  them  to  make  very  erratic  in- 
terpretations of  the  conduct  and  motives  of  others. 

4.  General  mental  alertness  and  interest  in  the  dominant  qualities 
of  things. 

5.  Philosophical  turn  of  mind  and  tendency  to  question  the  valid- 
.  ity  of  practically  every  phase  of  fact  and  truth. 

6.  Dominant  interest  fluctuating  between  theory,  principles,  and 
abstract  truths  on  the  one  hand,  and  actual  experience  and 
practice  in  mastering  material  things  through  the  application  of 
theories  and  principles  on  the  other. 

7.  Religious  attitude. 


56  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

Social  status  and  outlook.  The  important  items  con- 
cerning the  social  status  and  outlook  of  the  pupils  of  the 
secondary  school  cover  the  following  range  of  conditions :  , 

1.  Present  social  status  economically. 

a.  Total  dependency  for  food,  clothing,  shelter,  and  spending- 

money. 
6.  Partially  self-supporting. 

c.  Self-supporting. 

d.  Self-supporting  and  contributing  to  the  support  of  others. 

2.  Outlook  for  future  economic  social  status. 

a.  Total  dependency  for  indefinite  period  of  time  due  to  eco- 
nomic resources  of  parents. 

6.  Partially  self-supporting  at  close  of  secondary  school  a 
necessity. 

c.  Wholly  self-supporting  at  close  of  secondary  education  a 
necessity. 

d.  Self-supporting  and  contributing  to  the  support  of  others 
at  close  of  secondary  education  a  necessity. 

3.  Present  social  activities  make  very  few  demands  for  use  of 
scholastic  attainments  in  particular  subjects.    These  activities 
are  such  as: 

a.  Social  functions;  that  is,  parties,  picnics,  etc. 

6.  Church  activities. 

c.  Civic  enterprises. 

d.  Home  life. 

e.  General  affairs  of  school  life,  such  as: 

(1)  Assemblies. 

(2)  Literary  societies,  clubs,  etc. 

(3)  Athletics. 

4.  Future  social  activities,  such  as  social  functions,  church  activi- 
ties, etc.,  make  few  specific  demands  upon  scholastic  attain- 
ments in  particular  subjects. 

5.  Future  social  activities  of  an  economic  and  industrial  nature 
demand  specific  scholastic  attainments  in  particular  subjects. 

The  vital  question  to  raise  at  this  point  is  what  beneficial 
effect  will  the  agreement  of  teacher  and  supervisor  upon 
these  various  items  concerning  the  physiological,  psycho- 
logical, and  social  characteristics  of  adolescent  boys  and 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  — SECONDARY        57 

girls  have  upon  the  process  of  cooperative  teaching?  In 
other  words,  what  bearing  do  these  facts  have  upon  the 
education  of  adolescents,  so  that  by  knowing  these  facts  one 
may  be  able  better  to  adapt  his  procedure  in  dealing  with 
the  teaching  problems  in  the  secondary  school?  The  exact 
influence  that  each  of  the  above-enumerated  items  has  upon 
the  intellectual,  emotional,  moral,  and  motor  activities  of 
adolescent  individuals  is  not  at  all  definite  and  accurately 
known,  but  their  bearing  in  total  is  readily  recognized  and 
should  not  be  ignored  by  those  who  undertake  to  direct  the 
educational  activities  of  youth. 

Physical  conditions  and  adolescent  development.  What, 
then,  are  the  general  effects  of  the  combined  physical  con- 
ditions of  the  secondary  period  of  development?  One  im- 
portant effect  is  the  general  instability  of  the  central  nervous 
system,  and  another  is  the  enormous  burden  placed  upon 
the  circulatory  system.  These  two  should  be  thought  of  to- 
gether because  they  are  so  much  affected  by  the  same  condi- 
tions. The  nervous  system  is  easily  excited,  and  accelerated 
circulation  of  the  blood  accompanies  this  excitement.  Even 
very  simple  situations  may  arouse  such  a  condition  of  ex- 
treme nervousness  and  rapid  circulation  that  the  individual 
is  for  the  time  incapacitated  to  make  a  satisfactory  normal 
reaction.  The  teacher  may  be  ignorant  of  this  fact,  or  he 
may  be  unobservant  of  the  indications  of  the  actual  physical 
strain  and  confusion  that  the  pupil  is  undergoing.  The  re- 
sult is  that  he  deals  with  the  case  in  such  a  way  that  the 
strain  and  confusion  are  increased  instead  of  being  relieved. 
Stimuli  are  multiplied  right  at  the  time  when  they  should 
be  decreased,  and  the  pupil  is  relentlessly  pursued  when  he 
should  be  sympathetically  led  and  guided.  The  ignorant 
teacher  not  infrequently  imposes  physical  conditions,  such 
as  standing  at  the  blackboard  to  do  a  piece  of  work,  or  stand- 
ing before  the  class  while  grilling  questions  are  asked  in 


68        ,  ,,„,,„ ,     SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

rapid,  confusing,  third-degree  fashion,  when  instead  the 
pupil  needs  a  few  moments  of  calm  repose  in  order  to  clear 
the  disturbed  neural  pathways  and  restore  circulation  bal- 
ance. 

The  supervisor  may  be  as  ignorant  or  as  unobservant, as 
the  teacher.  If  this  is  the  case,  then  no  remedy  will  come 
through  the  advice  and  guidance  of  the  one  who  should  oe 
ekpert  in  such  matters.  But  if  the  teacher  and  the  super- 
visor both  know  the  significance  of  these  physical  tenden- 
cies, then  the  supervisor  at  least  should  be  able,  to  diagnose 
the  situation  correctly  and  the  teacher  will  be  able  to  ap- 
preciate his  suggestions  and  to  profit  by  them  in  dealing 
with  similar  cases  in  the  future. 

Adolescent  embarrassments.  Another  effect  is  the  em- 
barrassment that  young  people  feel  during  the  periods  of 
rapid  bodily  growth,  and  the  tendency  to  extreme  sluggish- 
ness of  physical  reactions.  This  effect  should  be  considered 
along  with  the  fact  that  many  of  the  general  coordinations 
are  awkward  and  ungainly,  while  many  of  the  finer  coordi- 
nations may  be  quite  facile  and  expert.  The  teacher  often 
takes  the  slowness  to  action  to  be  perverseness*,  and  hags  at 
the  boy  or  girl  to  get  a  speed  of  response  that  is  not  natural. 
Again,  the  pupil's  awkward,  ungainly  movements  are  taken 
to  be  indications  of  unwillingness  to  do  what  is  asked.  -  This 
is  very  apt  to  be  the  case  when  the  youth  undertakes  tb  hide 
the  embarrassment  he  feels  because  of  his  clumsiness  by  say- 
ing or  doing  something  to  turn  attention  sCwafy  from  His 
bungling  performance. 

Again,  the  pupil  may  do  his  very  best  to  perform  the  ta!sk 
as  directed,  but  the  more  he  tries,  and  the  more  the  teacher 
insists  that  he  do  better,  the  more  confused  he  becomes  and 
the  more  impossible  it  is  for  him  to  do  the  thing  skillfully. 
The  teacher  often  compares  this  bungling  performance  with 
some  skilled  performance  of  the  same  individual  and  con- 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  — SECONDARY        69 

eludes  that  the  pupil  is  simply  showing  off  and  trying  to  get 
out  of  doing  the  task  right.  He  has  failed,  perhaps,  to  note 
that  the  two  performances  call  for  two  totally  different 
types  of  coordinations,  and  that  skill  in  eon  trolling  one  set 
of  coordinations  does  not  give  skill  in  control  of  the  other 
type.  If  the  teacher  had  understood  the  situation  he  might 
have  handled  the  matter  in  such  a  way  that  the  boy  would 
not  have  been  embarrassed  by  his  effort,  and  he  would  not 
have  felt  the  need  of  trying  to  escape  the'  discbmfiture  of 
being  laughed  at  by  doing  something  that  would  cause  the 
other  pupils  to  laugh  with  him. 

Other  physiological  disturbances.  The  effect  produced  by 
the  maturing  of  the  sex  organs  is  subtle  and  yet  observable. 
The  mental  blankness  that  often  occurs  is  largely  due  to  the 
sudden  deep-seated  organic  disturbances  that  throw  the 
whole  organism  in  upon  itself.  The  whole  being  gropes  for 
understanding  of  its  own  mystery,  and  the  organism  strug- 
gles to  readjust  its  forces.  The  result  is  that  for  the  mo- 
ment the  outside  world  is  shut  out,  and,  when  tfce  individual 
turns  attention  once  more  to  external  stimuli,  mental  con- 
nections must  be  reestablished  before  the  gap  of  blankness 
disappears.  Again,1  the  individual  often  suffers  sb  intensely 
from  organic  shock  that  life  holds  little  of  Interest  -for  the 
time  being.  As  a  result -the  individual  seems  morose;  dis- 
tracted, depressed; --and  unable  to  dd  anything  with  satis^ 
faction.  •  ~4f« 

Summarizing  briefly  the  bearing  that  physiological  tenden* 
cies  of  adolescence  should  have  upon  educational  proced- 
ure, one  may  rightfully  say  that  the  teacher  and  supervisor 
should  regard  these  physical  conditions  as  the  barometer 
which  indicates  the  varying  kinds  of  pressure  that  affect 
the  atmosphere  of  the  classroom.  Readjustments  should  be 
made  in  the  light  of  the  barometric  readings,  so  that  difficul- 
ties may  be  lessened  and  damages  reduced  to  the  minimum. 


60  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

Adolescence  and  habit  formation.  How  can  the  teacher 
and  supervisor  capitalize  their  knowledge  of  the  funda- 
mental facts  concerning  the  psychological  characteristics  of 
adolescents?  The  first  great  fact  that  can  and  should  be 
capitalized  is  that  adolescence  is  the  supreme  period  of  habit 
formation.  Habits  of  thinking,  habits  of  knowing,  habits  of 
feeling,  habits  of  willing,  habits  of  acting  are  all  being  formed 
at  a  relatively  rapid  rate  and  tend  to  become  permanent. 
This  fact  should  help  those  who  undertake  to  educate  youth 
to  keep  the  development  of  the  individual  constantly  before 
them  as  the  goal  of  all  their  endeavors.  The  question  that 
should  be  asked  about  any  body  of  subject-matter  is,  What 
habits  will  it  contribute  to  and  how  may  it  be  made  to  con- 
tribute to  them  most  effectively?  The  teacher  should  view 
his  own  performance  in  the  light  of  how  effectively  it  con- 
tributes to  the  process  of  habit  formation  in  the  pupil.  In 
other  words,  this  fact  held  in  mind  should  give  the  teacher  a 
proper  perspective  of  the  purpose  of  the  secondary  school, 
and  enable  him  to  see  the  secondary  educational  life  of  the 
adolescent  youth  as  a  constant  struggle  between  conflicting 
habit-formation  tendencies. 

Instinctive  backgrounds.  The  knowledge  concerning  the 
dominant  instincts  that  manifest  themselves  during  this 
period  should  enable  the  teacher  to  discover  the  motives 
that  pupils  have  for  doing  many  of  the  things  that  they  do 
with  no  plausible  explanation  of  why  they  do  them.  These 
instincts  may  also  be  made  the  basis  for  consciously  moti- 
vating the  work  of  the  pupils,  although  the  pupils  them- 
selves may  not  recognize  the  fact  that  their  instincts  are  be- 
ing appealed  to.  The  appeal  to  instincts  must  be  subtle, 
and  must  seemingly  be  natural  interest  in  some  concrete  ob- 
ject or  goal.  The  understanding  of  instincts  also  helps  the 
teacher  in  classifying  pupils  according  to  the  degree  to 
which  certain  instincts  are  dominant.  For  example,  one 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  —  SECONDARY        61 

type  of  pupil  desires  to  be  in  the  limelight  of  public  notice; 
another  desires  to  escape  public  attention;  one  type  craves 
adventure,  while  another  is  satisfied  with  commonplace 
affairs,  etc.  Tact  is  largely  the  knack  of  intuitively  recog- 
nizing these  instinctively  prompted  groups  and  of  dealing 
with  them  so  as  to  capitalize  the  instincts  in  the  form  of 
motivation.  Most  of  all,  however,  the  understanding  of 
these  instincts  enables  the  teacher  to  appreciate  the  con- 
flicting impulses  and  instinctive  desires  that  struggle  for 
expression  in  the  behavior  of  the  adolescent  youth. 

The  habit  of  analyzing  conduct  to  discover  its  instinctive 
background  will  go  far  toward  making  the  teacher  broad- 
minded  enough  to  be  sympathetic,  charitable,  and  imper- 
sonal in  his  dealings  with  his  pupils.  The  great  impatience 
that  older  people  hi  general  feel  with  regard  to  the  foolish 
behavior  of  youth  must  give  way  to  an  abiding  patience 
that  is  based  upon  faith  in  the  outcome  of  rational  educa- 
tion, and  which  keeps  one  on  the  alert  to  discover,  in  the 
midst  of  what  seems  to  be  chaos,  a  definitely  forming  body 
of  conduct  which  ultimately  becomes  the  character  of  the 
adult.  The  teacher  and  the  supervisor  who  do  not  have 
this  faith,  who  do  not  possess  this  patience,  and  who  do  not 
find  in  the  instinctive  reactions  of  adolescent  boys  and  girls 
the  most  absorbing  opportunities  for  understanding  human 
life,  are  out  of  place  in  the  secondary  school. 

Mental  maturing  through  experiences.  How  can  a 
knowledge  of  the  facts  concerning  the  general  uncertainty 
of  intellectual,  emotional,  and  moral  behavior  be  of  value  to 
teacher  and  supervisor  in  carrying  on  cooperative  teaching? 
On  first  consideration  one  is  inclined  to  think  that  the  very 
nature  of  the  facts  seems  to  preclude  the  possibility  of 
formulating  any  definite  plans  for  procedure  in  dealing  with 
the  adolescent  pupils.  If,  however,  one  keeps  in  mind  the 
purpose  of  secondary  education,  a  knowledge  of  these  facts 


62  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

enables  one  to  formulate  some-  very  definite  Tides  for  guid- 


ance. 


A  careful  analysis  of  the  causes  of  these  uncertain,  erratic 
forms  of  behavior  discloses  the  fact  that  they  are1  due  to 
three  fundamental  causes?  naniely *  disturbed  physical ,  con- 
ditions that  ihave  already  been  described, -conflicting  im- 
pulses and  tendencies  as  has  just  been  pointed  out,  and  lack 
of  experience  or  lack  of  data  Upon  which  to  base  judgments. 
The  last  cause  gives  the  key  to  the  whole  problem.  .Give 
the  immature  individual  experiences  that  will  bring  about 
maturity  of  his  various  physical,  mental,  and  moral  traits 
and  he  will  acquire  .stable  physical  conditions  and  definite, 
dependable  instinctive  tendencies;  and,  finally,  the  acquisi- 
tion of  experiences  with  the  resulting  mental  maturing  will 
lay  a  foundation  for  rational,  reliable  choices  of  conduct. 
The  pupil  must  be  brought  back  from  his  erratic  wander- 
ings to  things  that  do  not  change  with  his  change  of  purpose 
or  point  of  view.  While  subject-matter  should  not  become 
sacred,  it  should  be  stable  and  organically  dependable. 
While  the  development  of  the  subject  is  not  the  prime  ob- 
ject, the  subject  should  not  be  made  to  correspond  to  the 
erratic  mind-wanderings  of  the  immature  pupil.  After  all, 
it  is  not  how  many  rules  and  principles  or  how  many  pages, 
etc.,  that  the  pupil  studies,  but  the  coming-back  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  thing  that  remains  organized  that  finally 
brings  about  order  in  the  behavior  of  the  individual.  Sta- 
bility of  purpose  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  dealing  with 
subject-matter,  and  patience  of  endeavor  in  keeping  the 
pupil  face  to  face  with  definite  problems  that  are  reasonable 
and  possible  for  him  to  solve  if  he  sticks  to  the  task,  must  be 
among  the  safeguards  of  secondary  educatio'n. 

In  other  words,  the  school  must  be  stable  enough  to  pre- 
sent the  opportunities  for  rational  behavior  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil;  then,  when  the  pupil  has  his  moments  of  normal, 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  —  SECONDARY        63 

instinctive  promptings  and  his  moments  of  rational  choos- 
ing of  conduct,  he  will  be  in  harmony  with  the  program  and 
efforts  of  the  school.  On  the  other  hand,  the  school  must 
be  flexible  enough  that,  when  the  pupii  wavers  into  erratic 
forms  of  behavior,  he  can  come  back  to  the  stable  path  again 
without  undue  stress  and  strain  over  the  errors,  and  without 
too  much  emphasis  being  placed  on  the  atoning  for  the  mis- 
takes.  Many  times  it  is  better  to  ignore  the  errors  entirely 
and  start  with  a  clean  slate,  so  as  to  catch  at  its  fullest  swing 
the  impulse  to  go  right  and  let  it  carry  the  individual  as  far 
on  the  right  road  as  possible.  Neither  the  fulfillment  of  the 
letter. -of  the  law,  nor  the  license  of  total  disregard  of  law 
should1  be  contended  for  in  secondary  education.  This  is 
especially;  true  in  matters  of  discipline,  but  it  is  also  a  valid 
point  in  regard  to  behavior  in  response  to  subject-matter. 

Erratic  behavior;  rules  of  procedure.  Another  way  of 
stating  the  rule  of  procedure  is  that  the  school  should  be 
stable  in  its  organization,  reasonable  in  its  requirements, 
but  steadfast  in  having  its  requirements  reasonably  met, 
patient  in  its  offering  of  opportunities,  waiting  for  the  er- 
ratic behavior  of  youth  to  wear  itself  out  by  futile  endeavor, 
then  starting  on  again  as  though  the  error  had  not  occurred. 
The  result  of  such  procedure  is  that  the  youth  stays  longer 
and  longer  on  the  steady  track  each  time  he  comes  back  and 
gets  the  right  kind  of  a  new  start,  until  finally  he  can  be 
trusted  to  hold  himself  to  recognized  standards  or  rational 
behavior. 

Pupil  to  choose  freely. .  Another  rule1  that  is  sound  is  that 
when  the  pupil  chooses  an  erratic  form  of  behavior,  let  him 
choose  it  freely,  but  make  hurt  fully  responsible  for  the  re- 
sults of  his  choice  of  conduct.  The  youngster  who,  through 
a  stubborn  impulse,  has  set  himself  to  resist:  some  require- 
ment and  suddenly  finds  that  his  stubbornness  has  nothing 
to  combat,  but -that  his  failure  to  meet  the  requirement  will 


64  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

mean  a  certain  loss  of  some  recognizable  value,  concludes 
that  he  was  foolish  and  hasty  in  his  decision.  He  expected 
a  fuss  over  his  action,  and  he  has  defeated  himself  and  is 
glad  to  get  back  in  line.  In  other  words,  the  individual  gets 
an  overdose  of  his  own  medicine.  Another  way  to  put  the 
point  is  that  the  pupil  is  made  responsible  for  his  own  choice, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  is  made  to  realize  what  the  fruits 
of  a  stable  form  of  behavior  would  be.  He  realizes  that  the 
choice  of  action  is  freely  his,  but  the  fruits  of  a  stable  form  of 
action  are  out  of  his  control.  Moreover,  he  must  bear  the 
blame  of  his  own  loss. 

Door  of  opportunity  not  dosed.  Another  rule  is  that  the 
school  must  not  be  vindictive  in  dealing  with  the  erratic 
behavior  of  youth,  and  it  must  not  treat  the  erring  individ- 
ual with  suspicion  when  he  is  given  a  new  opportunity. 
The  school  must  be  candid  and  frank  in  its  attitude  toward 
the  erratic  individual.  And  a  still  further  rule  that  is  closely 
related  to  these  two  is  that  the  door  of  opportunity  should 
never  be  closed  to  any  individual  as  long  as  the  individual 
makes  a  sincere,  reasonable  effort  to  make  use  of  the  op- 
portunity when  it  is  offered.  On  the  other  hand,  a  rule  that 
is  just  as  important  is  that  unappreciated  opportunities 
should  not  be  forced  on  the  individual.  This  does  not  mean 
that  individuals  must  never  be  held  to  doing  things  that  are 
irksome  and  uninteresting,  but  it  means  that  the  individual 
should  be  made  to  realize  some  degree  of  appreciation  of  the 
value  of  the  opportunity,  even  though  the  appreciation  has 
to  be  in  the  negative  form.  For  example,  the  pupil  may 
have  a  negative  appreciation  of  the  opportunity  to  do  a  piece 
of  work  because  he  realizes  what  his  loss  or  discomfiture 
will  be  if  he  does  not  avail  himself  of  the  opportunity. 

Teacher  not  to  worry.  Another  rule  is  that  the  teacher 
should  not  become  worried  over  the  erratic  interpreta- 
tions of  his  behavior  toward  the  pupil.  He  must  be  broad- 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  — SECONDARY        65 

minded  enough  to  go  more  than  halfway  to  set  the  pupil  on 
the  right  track.  Again,  he  must  calmly  ignore  the  erratic 
impression  and  treat  the  pupil  just  the  same  as  if  the  pupil 
made  the  right  interpretation  instead  of  a  grossly  erratic 
one.  In  other  words,  the  teacher  must  not  be  unduly  sensi- 
tive to  the  criticisms  that  pupils  make  of  his  conduct  toward 
them.  He  must  be  willing,  however,  to  dispel  their  false 
impressions  by  showing  them  that  he  did  not  mean  to  give 
them  any  such  impressions.  He  must  be  willing  to  take  part 
of  the  responsibility  for  the  error  and  hi  this  way  get  the 
personal  influence  that  will  broaden  the  pupil's  point  of 
view.  The  teacher  must  not  strive  unduly  to  vindicate  his 
own  position»  but  rather  to  give  the  pupil  the  benefit  of  the 
doubt.  This  attitude  will  usually  lead  the  pupil  to  question 
his  own  interpretation  of  the  situation  and  to  doubt  the  re- 
liability of  his  judgment.  This  attitude  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil  soon  leads  to  the  formation  of  the  habit  of  considering 
such  situations  from  different  angles  before  forming  and 
expressing  definite  conclusions. 

Adolescent  boys  and  girls  are  living  through  the  most 
highly  suggestible  period  of  their  whole  lives.  They  are 
bound  to  make  errors  of  conduct,  and  to  do  very  many  an- 
noying things.  Many  if  not  largely  all  their  actions  are 
prompted  by  suggestions.  Usually  these  suggestions  are 
immediate,  spontaneous,  and  impelling.  The  action  fol- 
lows so  closely  upon  the  suggestion  that  reflection  is  not 
possible.  One  of  the  problems  of  secondary  education  is  to 
replace  this  spontaneous  behavior  with  controlled  behavior 
that  is  based  upon  meditation.  The  one  important  fact 
that  stands  out  during  the  development  of  the  individual 
from  a  condition  of  spontaneous  behavior  ruled  by  sugges- 
tion to  a  condition  of  habitual  reflective  behavior,  is  that 
the  motives  of  the  adolescent  are  usually  not  malicious. 
The  fact  that  the  actions  are  due  to  suggestion  and  not  to 


66  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

premeditation  should  lead  one  to  seek  for  the  suggestions 
that  may  have  led  to  the  conduct,  instead  of  charging  the 
individual  with  vicious  intent.  This  point  of  view  does  not 
condone  irrational  behavior,  but  it  does  help  the  teacher 
and  supervisor  to  keep  a  proper  perspective  and  to  analyze 
the  situations  accurately.  To  hold  the  pupil  responsible 
for  his  erratic  behavior  is  right,  but  to  charge  him  with  vi- 
cious motives  and  premeditated  mischief,  when  he  has  only 
yielded  to  impulse,  is  wrong. 

Teacher  and  supervisor  hi  agreement.  There  is  perhaps 
no  point  in  the  whole  list  of  items  upon  which  teacher  and 
supervisor  should  possess  common  knowledge,  and  hold 
common  points  of  view,  that  is  of  more  importance  than 
this.  The  development  of  stable  habits  of  behavior  cannot 
be  brought  about  by  divided  counsels  and  opposite  attitudes. 
If  the  teacher  regards  the  act  of  the  pupil  as  an  outrage  and 
a  disgrace  that  should  be  severely  dealt  with  because  of  the 
meanness  of  the  offense,  and  the  supervisor  sees  only  a  typi- 
cal expression  of  a  spontaneous,  instinctive  impulse,  then 
the  teacher  is  likely  to  think  the  supervisor  is  upholding  and 
excusing  the  pupil. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  supervisor  is  apt  to  think  that 
the  teacher  is  pettish,  narrow-minded,  and  needs  discipline 
quite  as  much  as  the  pupil.  Teacher  and  supervisor  should 
cooperate  so  that  the  pupil  gets  the  impression  that  they 
both  have  the  same  attitude  toward  him.  This  is  practi- 
cally impossible  unless  both  teacher  and  supervisor  hold  the 
same  point  of  view  concerning  the  suggestibility  of  adoles- 
cent boys  and  girls.  Both  should  hold  to  the  idea  that  a 
careful  analysis  will  account  for  the  causes  of  errors  in  con- 
duct just  as  truly  as  an  intelligent  analysis  will  reveal  the 
causes  of  errors  in  solving  problems,  translating  language, 
or  any  other  sort  of  mental  performance. 

Importance  of  frank  dealings.     What  influence  on  the 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  —  SECONDARY       67 

teacher's  procedure  in  dealing  with  adolescent  boys  and 
girls  should  the  fact  have,  that  these  young  people  are 
beginning  to  philosophize  and  to  question  the  validity  of 
things?  One  very  important  effect  should  be  that  the 
teacher  will  be  very  careful  not  to  get  caught  up  on  the 
things  in  which  he  can  and  should  be  accurate  and  reliable. 
Moreover,  if  he  should  happen  to  get  caught,  unprepared  to 
give  accurate  information,  he  should  be  honest  and  not  at- 
tempt to  bluff  the  matter  through  in  order  to  avoid  the  ap- 
pearance of  being  ignorant.  Pupils  will  respect  the  teacher 
if  he  says  frankly  that  he  is  not  prepared  to  give  the  correct 
answer,  and  that  since  it  can  be  found  out  definitely  there  is 
no  call  for  guessing  about  it.  He  can  volunteer  to  look  the 
matter  up,  or  ask  some  one  else  to  do  it,  with  the  under- 
standing that  the  results  of  the  investigator  are  to  be  ac- 
cepted and  verified.  If,  however,  the  teacher  is  continu- 
ally confessing  to  ignorance  on  matters  about  which  he 
should  be  informed  and  about  which  he  could  be  informed 
through  study  and  consistent  preparation,  then  pupils  will 
soon  lose  confidence  hi  his  reliability. 

The  teacher  who  attempts  to  play  upon  the  credulity  of 
adolescent  young  people  will  soon  come  to  grief.  Moreover, 
the  teacher  must  have  a  great  deal  of  patience  with  the 
skepticism  of  youth,  and  not  always  try  to  convince  the 
pupil  that  he  is  right,  or  to  be  too  much  concerned  about 
disproving  the  fallacious  philosophy  of  youth.  Respect  the 
pupil's  point  of  view,  and  he  tends  to  become  more  tolerant 
of  the  point  of  view  of  others. 

Adolescence  and  the  religious  instinct.  Another  aspect 
of  this  philosophical  attitude  of  youth  is  the  religious  tend- 
ency of  adolescence.  The  youth  is  greatly  impressed  by 
the  mysterious  readjustments  that  are  taking  place  within . 
his  own  being,  and  by  the  dawning  consciousness  of  the 
great  mysteries  of  life  in  all  its  manifestations.  The  senti- 


68  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

merits,  the  overwhelming  emotions  that  well  up  within  the 
youth  in  the  presence  of  those  things  which  symbolize  the 
mystery  and  power  of  God,  and  those  intangible  promptings 
of  the  soul  which  surge  through  his  whole  being  when  in  the 
presence  of  those  things  which  symbolize  his  social  relations 
and  obligations  to  his  group,  rule  his  conduct. 

The  teacher  who  sneers  at  these  lofty  emotional  reactions 
of  youth  can  never  hope  to  make  a  lasting  impression  upon 
the  real  character  that  is  being  built.  The  teacher  who  can- 
not sympathize  with  the  consuming  emotional  responses  of 
youth  should  not  be  permitted  to  hold  a  responsible  position 
in  a  secondary  school.  One  who  would  lead  youth  must 
capitalize  the  surging  emotional  forces  by  expressing  some 
sentiment,  patriotic  or  religious,  that  will  become  the 
watchword  to  loyal  and  moral  forms  of  conduct.  The  more 
objectively  these  sentiments  can  be  expressed  or  symbolized, 
the  stronger  the  appeal  they  will  make  to  the  emotional 
natures  of  adolescent  youth.  The  teacher  who  is  cold, 
worldly-wise,  and  blase  in  respect  to  those  situations  which 
afford  the  opportunity  for  using  the  religious  tendencies  of 
youth  to  advantage  in  building  character  should  have  no 
place  hi  the  secondary  school. 

Catching  interests  at  the  crest.  The  fact  that  the  domi- 
nant interests  of  adolescents  fluctuate  between  the  mastery 
of  theory  and  the  application  of  theories  to  practical  activi- 
ties should  be  of  great  value  to  teacher  and  supervisor  in 
adapting  the  subject-matter  of  courses  to  the  groups  study- 
ing them.  Each  interest  caught  at  its  crest  will  greatly 
facilitate  the  mastery  of  the  subject  and  promote  the  devel- 
opment of  the  individuals.  All  coui-ses  in  the  secondary 
school  have  tended  to  become  too  theoretical.  Bodies  of 
principles  and  facts  are  organized  with  little  provision  for 
the  using  of  the  principles  and  facts  in  the  solving  of  practi- 
cal problems  that  enable  one  to  get  on  in  the  world.  The 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  —  SECONDARY       69 

result  is  that  the  secondary  pupils  get  fed  up  on  theory  until 
they  rebel.  The  rebellion  is  not  always  open,  but  usually 
takes  the  form  of  neglected  preparation  of  lessons,  inatten- 
tion in  class,  and  other  equally  annoying  manifestations 
of  disinterest.  Even  manual-training  courses  have  been 
known  to  consist  very  largely  of  the  study  of  principles  of 
construction,  use  and  care  of  tools,  uses  of  different  kinds  of 
materials,  etc.,  with  very  little  opportunity  to  make  useful 
objects  the  making  of  which  would  involve  the  use  of  the 
materials  studied,  the  use  of  tools,  and  the  application  of  the 
principles  of  construction. 

Such  sciences  as  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  etc.,  have 
been  almost  wholly  concerned  with  the  study  and  demon- 
stration of  principles.  Even  the  laboratory  work  in  these 
sciences  has  been  theoretical  rather  than  the  application  of 
principles  to  the  solution  of  useful  problems.  When  the 
courses  in  history,  language,  and  English  are  considered,  the 
case  is  even  more  damaging.  These  courses  are  stuffed  with 
facts  and  theories,  while  the  opportunities  for  applying  the 
facts  and  theories  to  interesting  problems  and  situations  are 
very  meager.  In  other  words,  the  general  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  secondary  education  has  been  that  of  stuffing  the 
pupils  as  full  of  facts  and  theories  as  possible.  The  applica- 
tion of  these  facts  and  principles  is  left  to  be  worked  out  by 
the  individual  after  he  leaves  school.  Facts  and  principles 
must  necessarily  be  the  core  of  any  subject  that  is  taught, 
but  ample  provision  must  be  made  for  the  using  of  the  facts 
and  principles  hi  the  actual  doing  of  things.  The  facilities 
of  the  school  are  limited  for  giving  the  pupils  opportunities 
to  apply  the  facts  and  principles  learned  to  problems  outside 
of  school  or  to  similar  problems  in  school,  but  the  most 
should  be  made  of  the  facilities  that  the  school  does  have  at 
its  command. 

Keep  the  pupil  in  the  center  of  the  stage.    The  facts  con- 


70  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

cerning  the  range  of  conditions  existing  in  the  social  status 
and  outlook  of  the  secondary-school  pupils  should  enable 
the  teacher  and  supervisor  to  keep  the  pupil  in  the  center  of 
the  stage,  instead  of  making  the  subject  the  center  of  atten- 
tion. The  pupil,  who  is  partially  or  wholly  self-supporting 
during  his  period  of  secondary  education,  is  entitled  to  con- 
siderations that  the  pupil  who  does  nothing  toward  his  own 
support  does  not  need  to  have  accorded  him.  The  educa- 
tional effect  of  the  outside  school  work  may  be  equally  as 
great  as  the  mental  maturing  that  results  from  the  study 
of  subject-matter  included  hi  school  courses.  Such  a  pupil 
may  miss  recitations  at  times  without  serious  loss  to  the  net 
results  of  his  education,  although  he  may  not  cover  all  of  the 
subject-matter  prescribed  in  a  course.  The  main  point  to 
keep  in  mind  is  what  the  study  of  the  subject  can  contribute 
to  the  different  individuals  according  to  the  future  social  de- 
mands that  will  be  made  upon  them,  as  well  as  the  present 
conditions  Under  which  they  are  working. 

School  should  provide  social  opportunities.  Another 
phase  of  this  problem  is  that  of  giving  these  adolescent  boys 
and  girls  social  opportunities  in  the  school.  They  are  con- 
tributing very  little  in  the  main  to  the  activities  of  the 
larger  public  social  group.  They  must  necessarily  feel  that 
they  are  dependents.  They  desire  social  independence  and 
individual  recognition.  The  school  should  give  them  op- 
portunities for  making  individual  and  group  contributions 
to  the  general  life  of  the  classroom  and  to  the  life  of  the 
school  at  large.  Social  responsibilities  and  personal  obli- 
gations must  come  to  the  adolescent  youth  through  proper 
associations  with  his  fellows  who  are  on  the  same  social  foot- 
ing as  himself.  Every  recitation  is  a  social  situation. 

Sometimes  people  talk  about  the  socialized  recitation  as  if 
a  new  device  had  been  discovered  in  teaching.  Their  dis- 
cussion seems  to  indicate  that  recitations  are  usually  not 


CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  —  SECONDARY       71 

social  unless  some  extraordinary  technique  of  procedure  is 
followed.  The  fact  is  that  recitations  cannot  be  anything 
else  than  social  situations,  but  the  opportunities  that  indi- 
viduals have  for  contributing  to  the  occasion  may  vary 
greatly  according  to  the  technique  of  procedure  that  is  fol- 
lowed hi  directing  the  performance.  The  one  vital  point 
that  must  not  be  overlooked  is  that  the  school  must  recog- 
nize the  equality  of  the  social  status  of  its  pupils,  and  op- 
portunity must  be  accorded  to  each  pupil  without  being  in- 
fluenced by  the  economic  conditions  that  may  figure  in  the 
social  status  of  families  hi  the  larger  social  whole.  In  other 
words,  the  spirit  of  the  school  must  be  truly  democratic,  and 
the  attitude  of  the  teacher  and  the  supervisor  toward  the 
pupils  must  be  genuinely  democratic. 

Socializing  subject-matter.  The  present  social  status  of 
the  pupils  of  the  secondary  school  and  their  future  outlook 
make  clear  that  one  of  the  vital  problems  is  to  give  as  great 
opportunity  as  possible  to  adolescents  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  social  conditions  of  the  present  time.  One  of  the 
most  fundamental  ways  hi  which  this  can  be  done  is  by  in- 
troducing such  subjects  as  economics,  commercial  geogra- 
phy, commercial  law,  sociology,  and  political  economy  into 
the  secondary-school  curriculum.  Another  very  important 
and  far-reaching  means,  however,  is  to  socialize  the  subject- 
matter  of  all  courses  in  the  curriculum  to  a  much  greater  de- 
gree. This  can  be  done  by  bringing  into  each  subject  its 
social  usefulness  and  adaptations. 

Take  mathematics,  for  example.  It  has  its  scientific  side 
as  a  coherent  scheme  of  principles,  and  also  its  social  side  in 
various  commercial  transactions  and  industrial  activities. 
Dry  measure  as  a  scheme  for  counting  is  scientific  in  charac- 
ter, but  when  the  scheme  is  used  in  such  a  transaction  as  a 
fanner  makes  in  marketing  his  potato  crop,  the  situation  is  a 
social  one  which  makes  use  of  the  counting  scheme  as  a  con- 


72  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

venience.  Take  English,  for  another  example.  When  the 
pupil  studies  the  rules  of  grammar  and  rhetoric,  he  is  dealing 
with  a  science,  but  when  he  stands  before  an  audience  to 
read  a  paper  upon  some  topic  of  interest,  he  faces  a  social 
situation. 

The  important  problem  psychologically  is  that  of  deter- 
mining when  to  center  the  attention  of  the  pupil  upon  the 
mastery  of  the  science,  and  when  to  direct  his  attention 
wholly  to  the  mastery  of  the  social  situations  in  which  the 
science  may  prove  serviceable.  Whether  the  scientific  facts 
should  be  alternated  with  social  facts,  or  whether  the  scien- 
tific facts  should  be  largely  mastered  before  taking  up  the 
social  facts,  or  whether  the  scientific  facts  and  the  social 
facts  should  be  presented  simultaneously  in  the  same  sub- 
ject-matter is  the  vital  problem  and  one  that  cannot  be 
answered  conclusively  without  careful  and  thoroughgoing 
experimentation.  The  chief  danger  that  should  be  avoided 
is  that  of  thinking  the  pupil  is  learning  the  social  facts 
because  they  happen  to  be  present  hi  the  subject-matter, 
when  he  may  be  entirely  engrossed  with  mastering  the  sci- 
entific facts.  For  example,  the  pupil  in  arithmetic  may  be 
so  concerned  about  getting  the  right  relations  between  the 
quantities  involved  in  the  problems,  and  in  carrying  on  the 
right  operations  to  reach  a  correct  numerical  result,  that  he 
gives  no  thought  at  all  to  the  social  factors. 

Make  the  social  situations  accurate  and  true.  The  most 
important  aspect  of  the  problem  of  socializing  the  various 
subjects  of  the  curriculum  is  that  of  making  the  social  situa- 
tions that  are  created  in  the  school  as  accurate  and  true  to 
actual  social  conditions  as  is  possible.  The  social  situations 
may  be  used  as  practice  material,  or  opportunities  for  mas- 
tering the  scientific  rules  and  principles  through  use,  but 
they  should  do  more  than  that.  They  should  develop  an 
understanding  and  mastery  of  actual  social  behavior.  The 


COOPERATIVE  TEACHING  —  SECONDARY       73 

different  subjects  should  thus  give  the  pupil  an  appreciation 
of  actual  social  obligations,  and  an  insight  into  his  own  so- 
cial obligations.  In  addition  to  this,  such  socialization  of 
experiences,  along  with  the  study  of  the  social  sciences, 
should  give  the  pupil  an  outlook  and  definite  point  of  view 
concerning  the  obligations  of  society  as  a  whole  and  the  in- 
terrelated duties  and  obligations  of  groups  within  the  larger 
social  group.  The  whole  vital  problem  may  be  summed  up 
by  saying  that  the  secondary  school  should  seek  in  every 
way  to  give  its  constituency  a  potential  social  status  that 
will  be  practically  certain  to  function  in  the  future  activities 
in  which  these  young  people  engage.  In  other  words,  while 
they  are  largely  dependent  socially,  make  them  potentially 
independent. 

Chapter  summary.  The  particular  basis  for  cooperative 
teaching  in  the  secondary  school  involves:  agreement  that 
the  secondary  school  is  the  school  for  adolescents;  that  its 
place  is  to  cover  the  gap  between  the  elementary  school  and 
the  college;  that  its  curriculum  should  be  extensive  in  range 
of  subjects;  an  understanding  of  the  important  physiological 
and  psychological  characteristics  of  adolescents,  and  their 
social  status  and  outlook.  Specific  application  of  these 
principles  must  be  made  to  concrete  cases  hi  order  to  render 
the  knowledge  of  them  effective  in  dealing  with  adolescents. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Give  an  illustration  from  any  high-school  subject  of  the  difference 
between  the  psychological  and  the  historical  approach  to  subject- 
matter. 

2.  Give  three  examples  of  slow  bodily  growth  attended  by  rapid  mental 
development,  and  three  in  which  rapid  bodily  growth  was  attended 
by  slow  mental  growth. 

3.  Name  some  of  the  finer  coordinations  that  adolescents  form  with 
facility. 

4.  Name  some  of  the  general  coordinations  that  adolescents  do  not  form 
readily. 


74  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

5.  Give  two  specific  cases  of  conduct  that  were  due  to  the  instinct  for 
social  recognition  and  prestige. 

6.  How  may  the  instinct  of  attraction  toward  the  opposite  sex  prove 
troublesome  to  the  teacher?     How  may  it  be  capitalized  to  bring 
about  good  results  instead  of  trouble? 

7.  How  may  the  spirit  of  rivalry  and  emulation  be  used  to  advantage  in 
school  work? 

8.  What  types  of  play  should  be  emphasized  during  the  adolescent  pe- 
riod? 

9.  Give  three  cases  of  conduct  that  manifested  fickleness  of  purpose  in 
adolescents. 

10.  Give  two  cases  of  the  same  individual  in  which  stubbornness  was 
manifested  in  an  extreme  degree  in  the  one  case,  and  unusual  meek- 
ness in  the  other. 

11.  Give  examples  of  hysterical  reactions  in  both  adolescent  boys  and 
girls. 

12.  Give  example  of  unreasonable  emotional  explosions  in  the  conduct  of 
adolescents. 

IS.  Give  three  examples  of  erratic  interpretations  of  the  conduct  of  the 
teacher  that  adolescents  have  made,  due  to  suggestion. 

14.  Does  the  present  secondary-school  curriculum  adequately  provide  for 
the  fluctuation  of  interest  between  theory  and  study  of  principles  and 
practice  or  doing  things?    What  changes  in  the  curriculum  should  be 
made  to  meet  this  psychological  fact? 

15.  What  problems  for  the  teacher  and  supervisor  arise  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  secondary-school  pupils  must  make  part  or  all  of 
their  living? 

16.  Give  an  example  in  which  letting  a  pupil  choose  an  erratic  form  of  be- 
havior freely  resulted  in  a  realization  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  of  his 
own  responsibility. 

17.  Give  an  example  of  a  case  in  which  the  teacher  dealt  with  the  pupil  in 
a  vindictive  spirit. 


CHAPTER  VI 

GENERAL  BASIS  FOR  CO-OPERATIVE  TEACHING  IN 
EITHER  ELEMENTARY  OR  SECONDARY  SCHOOL 

Other  necessary  common  ground.  So  far  the  considera- 
tion of  facts  and  principles  upon  which  common  agreement 
is  essential  for  successful  cooperative  teaching  has  dealt  only 
with  those  that  help  to  give  a  proper  perspective  of  the  hu- 
man materials  that  are  involved  in  elementary  and  in  sec- 
ondary education,  and  the  attitude  that  should  be  con- 
stantly assumed  by  those  who  undertake  to  mould  these 
human  materials  through  a  rational  procedure  in  elementary 
and  in  secondary  education.  The  next  facts  and  principles 
pertain  to  the  active  processes  of  bringing  the  child  mind 
and  the  adolescent  mind  and  the  subject-matter  of  particu- 
lar subjects  together  in  the  recitation.  When  teacher  and 
supervisor  face  the  task  of  assigning  and  teaching  lessons, 
they  need  to  have  in  mind  the  same  fundamental  facts  con- 
cerning the  definition  of  method,  the  principles  underlying 
method,  the  problems  of  teaching  growing  out  of  an  under- 
standing of  method,  the  principles  and  problems  underlying 
devices,  and  the  principles  and  problems  involved  in  decid- 
ing upon  the  technique  that  should  be  practiced.  The 
supervisor  cannot  make  definite,  pointed,  clear-cut  sugges- 
tions, and  the  teacher  cannot  appreciate  such  suggestions 
when  they  are  made,  unless  both  have  in  mind  the  clear  dis- 
tinctions that  should  be  made  between  these  various  phases 
of  the  whole  performance  of  teaching.  A  detailed  treat- 
ment of  these  distinctions  is  hardly  in  point  in  this  discus- 
sion, but  a  rather  brief  statement  of  the  point  of  view  that 
might  well  be  taken  as  the  ground  of  common  agreement 
between  teacher  and  supervisor  for  guidance,  in  either  ele- 


76  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

mentary  or  secondary  teaching,  will  be  given  to  make  clear 
the  types  of  pedagogical  material  that  are  involved  and  to 
emphasize  the  argument. 

The  principles  of  method.  Method  is  the  characteristic 
mental  procedure  of  the  mind  of  the  learner  in  attending  to 
any  object  that  is  brought  before  it  for  consideration.  This 
characteristic  mental  procedure  is  as  follows :  The  mind  first 
sees  the  object  as  a  vague  whole;  it  then  analyzes  the  object, 
noting  its  prominent  characteristics;  it  discovers  some  domi- 
nant characteristic,  and  reorganizes  the  object  around  this 
dominant  characteristic;  this  same  form  of  analysis  and  reor- 
ganization takes  place  whenever  this  object,  or  one  similar  to 
it,  is  present  before  the  mind,  until  it  becomes  the  habitual 
form  of  reaction  of  the  mind  to  such  an  object.  This  pro- 
cedure of  the  mind  in  learning  is  always  the  same,  no  matter 
what  the  type  of  object  may  be  that  is  presented  for  consid- 
eration. 

The  principles  of  method  are  the  psychological  laws  gov- 
erning the  mental  processes  that  are  active  during  the  men- 
tal movement  of  analysis  and  synthesis.  Analysis  and 
synthesis  involve  sense  perception,  imagination,  memorys 
judgment-forming,  and  reasoning.  One  is  dealing  with  a 
principle  of  method  when  trying  to  determine  the  way  hi 
which  sense  perception  should  be  employed  in  the  analysis 
of  a  particular  type  of  object.  Again,  it  is  a  principle  of 
method  that  is  involved  in  discovering  the  type  of  memo- 
rization that  is  most  effective  in  making  a  synthesis  of  par- 
ticular material  that  has  been  analyzed,  etc. 

Problems  in  teaching  and  method.  Problems  of  teaching 
that  grow  out  of  an  understanding  of  method  and  its  princi- 
ples are  numerous.  A  few  typical  ones  may  be  mentioned. 
One  of  the  most  important  is  the  problem  of  deciding 
whether  the  subject-matter  in  a  particular  course  should  be 
organized  predominantly  hi  the  form  of  inductive  problems, 


GENERAL  BASIS  77 

or  predominantly  in  the  form  of  deductive  problems,  in  or- 
der to  facilitate  the  pupil's  acts  of  analysis  and  synthesis  in 
learning  the  subject.  The  interrelation  between  the  induc- 
tive and  deductive  organization  of  subject-matter  in  any 
course  is  also  of  vital  importance.  These  organizations  are 
never  isolated  or  independent  of  each  other,  but  always  co- 
exist in  varying  degrees  of  emphasis  which  makes  the  one 
or  the  other  most  obvious.  Another  one  is  the  problem  of 
organizing  the  subject-matter  of  the  whole  subject  so  that 
the  pupil  will  readily  get  a  fundamental  comprehension  of  it 
as  a  whole  at  the  outset,  and  then  be  able  to  analyze  it  into 
its  large  divisions  and  important  subdivisions  as  the  study 
of  the  subject  progresses.  Still  another  problem  is  that  of 
determining  the  types  and  extent  of  subject-matter  wholes 
that  should  be  taken  as  the  units  for  memorizing.  And  still 
another  problem  is  that  of  determining  the  degree  to  which 
the  different  mental  processes  of  sense  perception,  imagi- 
nation, etc.,  should  be  employed  in  mastering  the  various 
divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  subject. 

Devices  and  their  use.  A  device  is  a  means  that  may  be 
used  to  bring  objects  before  the  mind  of  the  learner.  Ques- 
tions are  a  device.  Pictures  are  a  device.  Devices  are  both 
intellectual  and  material.  They  are  innumerable.  Devices 
should  not  be  confused  with  method,  or  with  principles  and 
problems  of  teaching  that  are  based  on  method  and  its  prin- 
ciples. One  of  the  vital  problems  of  teaching  is  to  select 
devices  that  are  valid  for  the  teaching  of  a  particular  subject 
hi  a  particular  school  situation.  This  is  a  problem  in  which 
teacher  and  supervisor  will  be  greatly  helped  by  coming  to  a 
common  agreement,  based  on  the  principles  underlying  the 
selection  of  devices. 

These  principles  are  as  follows: 

1.  Devices  should  be  economical  as  to  time  consumed  in  prepa- 
ration and  in  actual  employment  relative  to  the  results  se- 
cured by  their  use. 


78  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

2.  Devices  in  general  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  appeal 
to  at  least  seventy -five  per  cent  of  the  class. 

3.  Devices  should  be  varied  enough  to  appeal  to  the  entire  class 
individually. 

4.  Devices  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  be  readily  acces- 
sible when  needed. 

5.  Devices  are  not  good  in  and  of  themselves.  They  must  be 
adapted  to  meet  specific  situations.     What  is  good  at  one 
time  may  be  actually  bad  at  another. 

6.  Devices  must  be  of  such  a  character  that  they  do  not  attract 
attention  to  themselves. 

The  teacher  must  not  be  absorbed  in  the  manipulation  of 
devices,  and  they  must  not  become  a  task  for  the  pupil. 
History  outlines  and  science  notebooks  are  cases  in  point. 
These  devices  very  often  become  the  chief  task  of  the  pupils 
instead  of  being  welcome  aids.  Having  agreed  to  these 
principles,  the  chief  problem  for  teacher  and  supervisor  is  to 
agree  upon  the  extent  to  which  such  devices  as  blackboard 
outlines,  notebooks,  graphs,  maps,  lectures,  questions,  etc., 
should  be  used  hi  teaching  the  particular  course  or  courses. 
When  ineffective  results  are  secured  the  criticisms  should  be 
based  upon  these  principles. 

Teaching  technique.  Technique  is  the  body  of  actual 
performances  or  the  various  activities  put  forth  by  the 
teacher  in  conducting  the  recitation.  The  asking  of  ques- 
tions to  develop  a  point  is  a  device,  but  the  number  of  ques- 
tions asked,  the  speed  with  which  they  are  asked,  the  form 
of  the  questions,  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  manifested  in 
asking  the  questions,  etc.,  are  points  of  technique.  The 
technique  of  the  teacher  is  perhaps  the  one  phase  of  the 
teacher's  training  that  can  be  most  effectively  developed 
through  supervision;  hence  the  vital  importance  of  teacher 
and  supervisor  having  a  definite  understanding  of  the  defini- 
tion of  technique,  and  of  the  principles  underlying  the  de- 
velopment of  a  rational  body  of  teaching  acts  or  skill. 


GENERAL  BASIS  79 

The  determination  of  technique  should  be  guided  by  the 
following  principles: 

1.  The  acts  of  the  teacher  should  be  natural. 

2.  The  acts  of  the  teacher  should  be  as  inconspicuous  as  possible. 

3.  The  acts  of  the  teacher  should  occupy  as  little  time  of  the 
recitation  as  possible. 

4.  The  teacher  should  set  a  good  example  in  all  those  things  that 
are  asked  or  required  of  the  pupil. 

5    The  acts  of  the  teacher  should  be  premeditated,  as  a  rule. 

6.  The  acts  of  the  teacher  should  be  adapted  to  the  environment 
of  the  school,  the  nature  of  the  subject-matter,  the  dominant 
characteristics  of  the  pupils  being  taught,  and  the  purpose  for 
which  the  lesson  is  being  taught. 

7.  What  is  good  technique  at  one  time  may  be  bad  at  another 
time,  and  vice  versa. 

8.  The  nature  of  devices  must  determine  to  considerable  extent 
the  technique  that  should  be  employed  in  using  them. 

9.  The  skill  in  the  technique  practiced  determines  almost  wholly 
the  effectiveness  of  the  devices  used,  and  furthers  or  hinders 
the  method  of  the  learner. 

10.  Skill  hi  technique  saves  time  and  energy  of  teacher  and  pupils. 

11.  The  effectiveness  of  technique  is  largely  determined  by  the 
personality  of  the  teacher. 

Agreements  as  to  teaching  procedure.  After  getting 
these  principles  of  technique  well  in  mind,  the  teacher  and 
supervisor  should  agree  upon  a  fairly  definite  body  of  acts 
—  such  as  asking  the  question  and  giving  time  for  thinking 
out  the  answer  before  naming  the  pupil  who  is  to  respond, 
bringing  each  pupil  into  the  recitation  frequently,  etc.  — 
that  are  considered  as  usually  being  good  technique.  They 
should  also  agree  upon  a  number  of  acts  —  such  as  repeating 
the  answers  of  pupils,  asking  questions  that  can  be  answered 
by  yes  and  no,  etc.  —  that  are  considered  as  a  rule  to  be  bad 
technique.  The  criticisms  of  the  supervisor  can  then  be 
based  on  definite  principles  and  pointed  to  a  definite  prob- 
lem which  the  teacher  must  work  out  in  his  own  procedure. 
The  teacher  will  have  a  basis  for  appreciating  the  sugges- 


80  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

tions  of  the  supervisor,  and  also  a  definite  guide  in  planning 
in  advance  for  the  recitation. 

Teaching  standards.  Another  matter  upon  which  teacher 
and  supervisor  should  have  a  definite  understanding  is  the 
standards  by  which  the  teaching  performance  is  to  be 
judged.  These  standards  should  take  into  account  the 
status  of  development  of  the  pupils  at  the  time  the  teacher 
takes  charge  of  them,  the  purpose  for  which  the  subject  as  a 
whole  is  being  taught,  the  purpose  for  which  the  individual 
lessons  are  being  taught,  the  skill  of  the  teacher  in  handling 
the  class  and  in  presenting  the  subject-matter  of  the  recita- 
tion, and  the  results  secured  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils. 
These  standards  may  be  more  or  less  arbitrary  according  to 
the  point  of  view  of  the  supervisor,  but,  whatever  they  are 
to  be,  the  teacher  is  entitled  to  know  at  the  outset  on  what 
points  and  on  what  types  of  evidence  his  teaching  will  be 
judged.  If  teacher  and  supervisor  agree  to  have  the  same 
understanding  of  the  types  of  evidence  that  will  be  taken  as 
the  criteria  for  judging  the  success  of  the  teaching  perform- 
ance, then  the  teacher  can  recognize  the  validity  of  criti- 
cisms and  can  study  intelligently  the  suggestions  made  by 
the  supervisor  as  to  how  he  can  improve  his  teaching. 
This  agreement  will  go  far  toward  creating  the  genuine  spirit 
of  cooperation  which  is  so  essential  to  securing  good  results 
from  the  work  of  supervision. 

Proper  teaching  relationships.  Another  point  upon 
which  a  clear  understanding  between  teacher  and  supervisor 
is  necessary  is  that  of  the  relation  each  is  to  bear  to  the  pu- 
pils being  taught,  and  to  the  director  of  the  school  in  matters 
of  management.  The  teacher  should  be  given  as  full  re- 
sponsibility and  authority  as  conditions  make  possible,  but 
whatever  the  basis  of  cooperation  in  management  is  to  be,  a 
definite  understanding  must  be  had  in  order  to  prevent  con- 
fusion and  unintentional  criss-crossing  of  decisions  and  ac- 


GENERAL  BASIS  81 

tions.  This  agreement  must  not  only  cover  the  relations 
that  are  to  exist  between  the  teacher  and  supervisor  and  di- 
rector, but  it  must  also  include  the  standards  of  discipline 
and  the  items  that  are  considered  in  general  as  constituting 
good  management  of  the  general  affairs  of  the  classroom. 
The  teacher  should  know  to  what  extent  he  can  exercise  his 
authority  in  dealing  with  these  problems,  and  he  should 
have  some  definite  idea  of  the  measures  that  are  considered 
as  unwise  or  at  least  exceptional.  The  difference  between 
emergency  conditions  and  those  that  are  normal  in  the  life 
of  the  school  should  be  matters  of  common  understanding.  In 
other  words,  a  comprehensive  perspective  of  the  whole  field 
of  management  should  be  mutually  understood  at  the  outset. 

The  purpose  of  supervision.  A  final  point  which  should 
be  mutually  understood  is  the  purpose  of  supervision.  The 
teacher  and  the  supervisor  must  agree  that  the  teaching 
under  supervision  on  the  one  hand  and  the  supervising  of 
teaching  on  the  other  must  contribute  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  two  definite  ends,  namely,  the  attainment  of  insight 
and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  the  efficient  educa- 
tion of  the  children  or  adolescent  boys  and  girls  who  are 
taught  by  the  teacher.  The  teacher  must  see  quite  as 
clearly  as  does  the  supervisor  that  the  education  of  the  pu- 
pils in  either  the  training  school  or  the  public  school  must  be 
thoroughly  safeguarded.  On  the  other  hand,  the  supervisor 
must  recognize  the  fact  that  the  efficient  training  of  the 
teacher  must  be  carefully  safeguarded,  and  in  order  to  do 
this  the  teacher  must  be  given  as  full  and  free  opportunity 
as  possible  to  overcome  weaknesses  as  well  as  to  strengthen 
strong  points. 

The  supervisor  must  realize  that  he  has  a  great  respon- 
sibility to  meet  in  making  the  teacher  skillful  and  reliable  as 
a  teacher.  He  must  regard  the  success  or  failure  of  the 
teacher  as  his  own  success  or  failure  in  very  large  degree. 


82  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

On  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  must  regard  the  work  of  the 
supervisor  as  a  supreme  opportunity  for  learning  how  to 
teach,  and  for  being  trained  in  the  skill  of  teaching.  The 
supervisor  must  be  regarded  as  a  sympathetic  helper  from 
whom  consolation,  encouragement,  insight,  and  wise  direc- 
tion may  be  secured.  Every  suggestion  and  action  of  the 
supervisor  must  be  welcomed  as  being  for  the  direct  benefit 
of  the  teacher.  In  fine,  one  may  say  that  the  teacher  and 
supervisor  should  feel  that  their  welfare  is  mutual,  and  that 
they  succeed  or  fail  together. 

Chapter  summary.  The  general  basis  for  cooperative 
teaching  in  either  the  elementary  or  secondary  school  in- 
volves: clear-cut  definitions  of  method,  device,  and  tech- 
nique, and  an  understanding  of  the  fundamental  principles 
underlying  each;  an  understanding  of  the  standards  that  are 
to  be  used  in  judging  the  teaching  performances;  an  under- 
standing of  the  relations  the  teacher  and  the  supervisor  bear 
to  the  pupils  and  the  director  in  matters  of  management; 
and  an  understanding  of  the  exact  purpose  of  the  work  of 
the  supervisor. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Compare  the  definition  of  method  given  in  this  chapter  with  the  defi- 
nitions given  by  other  pedagogical  writers. 

2.  Give  two  devices  that  might  be  used  in  the  teaching  of  geography  that 
satisfactorily  meet  all  the  principles  set  forth  above. 

8.  Show  how  the  making  of  history  outlines  and  the  keeping  of  science 
notebooks  may  become  merely  additional  tasks  for  the  pupils  to  per- 
form, instead  of  being  valuable  aids  to  the  pupils  in  mastering  the 
subjects. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  fifteen  items  of  technique  that  are  ordinarily  considered 
to  be  good. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  ten  items  of  technique  that  are  ordinarily  considered  to 
be  bad. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  the  types  of  evidence  that  you  would  secure  as  a  means 
of  judging  the  success  of  the  teaching  performance. 

7.  Show  how  the  success  of  the  pupil  being  taught  by  the  teacher,  the 
success  of  the  teacher,  and  the  success  of  the  supervisor  are  mutually 
interdependent. 


CHAPTER  VH 

OTHER  PRINCIPLES  UNDERLYING  SUPERVISORY 
METHOD 

1.  The  second  principle  of  method 

THIS  is  that  one  learns  to  teach  by  teaching.  This  is  the 
fundamental  principle  upon  which  rests  the  idea  that  teach- 
ers can  be  efficiently  and  economically  trained  in  the  science 
and  art  of  teaching  under  the  supervision  of  expert  teachers 
in  a  training  school.  While  this  principle  is  psychologically 
correct,  it  must  be  interpreted  in  terms  of  the  various  activi- 
ties that  the  teacher  must  put  forth  in  learning  how  to  teach 
and  in  acquiring  skill  in  the  actual  performance. 

Anticipatory  teaching.  The  first  interpretation  of  this 
principle  is  that  one  learns  not  merely  by  doing,  but  by  cor- 
rect doing.  What,  then,  is  the  first  step  in  correct  doing? 
The  psychological  answer  is  that  one  takes  the  first  step  in 
correct  doing  when  he  goes  through  the  mental  performance 
of  doing  the  act  in  anticipation  of  the  actual  performance  of 
the  act.  This  mental  doing  of  the  act  is  carried  on  first 
through  the  mastery  of  the  theory  or  the  principles  involved 
in  the  correct  doing  of  the  particular  act.  When  the 
teacher  plans  the  teaching  of  a  certain  lesson,  he  should 
teach  that  lesson  in  imagination  in  keeping  with  the  princi- 
ples involved  in  the  correct  teaching  of  that  particular  sub- 
ject or  phase  of  subject-matter.  Therefore  the  first  form  of 
teaching  that  the  teacher  should  practice  is  that  of  teaching 
in  anticipatory  imagination. 

This  anticipatory  mental  teaching  is  an  essential  part  of 
the  whole  performance  of  teaching.  The  teacher  should 
master  this  aspect  of  teaching  as  rapidly  and  as  thoroughly 


84  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

as  possible.  This  phase  of  correct  teaching  is  the  point  at 
which  the  active  work  of  supervision  begins  concretely. 
The  supervisor  and  the  teacher  work  together  in  setting  up 
the  teaching  situation  in  advance  of  the  actual  recitation. 
The  teacher,  with  the  guidance  of  the  supervisor,  analyzes 
the  situation  thoroughly  and  goes  through  the  recitation  in 
imagination.  The  supervisor  directs  the  doing  or  teaching 
in  imagination  according  to  his  standards  of  correct  teach- 
ing. He  must  see  to  it  that  the  mental  performance  is  as 
nearly  correct  and  as  thoroughly  standardized  as  possible, 
in  order  that  it  may  be  used  as  the  measure  for  guiding  and 
improving  the  actual  teaching  performance. 

Value  of  the  anticipatory  process.  This  phase  of  learning 
to  teach  correctly  by  correct  theoretical  teaching  cannot  be 
too  strongly  emphasized.  The  teacher  who  attempts  to 
learn  to  teach  by  actual  teaching  acts,  without  a  period  of 
mental,  imaginative  teaching,  has  no  standard  or  back- 
ground against  which  to  project  the  actual  teaching  per- 
formance; hence  he  has  little  opportunity  for  knowing  when 
he  is  improving  and  when  he  is  deteriorating.  When  the 
teacher  has  no  training  in  anticipatory  imaginative  teach- 
ing, the  supervisor  has  very  little  opportunity  for  making 
constructive  suggestions;  hence  he  must  try  to  construct  the 
standard  of  correct  teaching  out  of  the  present  immediate 
teaching  experiences  of  the  teacher.  These  experiences 
themselves  are  so  engrossing  that  the  teacher  has  great  diffi- 
culty in  seeing  beyond  them  or  through  them  to  the  princi- 
ples involved  in  the  situation. 

The  teacher  in  this  situation  is  like  the  individual  who 
undertakes  to  learn  to  ride  a  bicycle  by  means  of  the  actual 
performance  without  any  antecedent  imaginative,  mental 
riding  of  the  wheel.  The  result  is  that,  as  the  bicycle  rider 
is  wholly  engrossed  with  trying  to  keep  the  machinery  going 
in  an  upright  position  and  somewhere  in  the  road,  so  the 


OTHER  PRINCIPLES  85 

teacher  is  absorbed  in  the  task  of  keeping  the  recitation 
moving  and  somewhere  in  the  direction  it  is  supposed  to  go. 
The  memory  of  what  one  actually  does  on  such  occasions  is 
a  very  poor  means  of  checking  up  the  teaching  performance 
so  that  it  can  be  analyzed  and  made  the  basis  of  learning 
how  to  teach  correctly.  On  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  who 
is  constantly  going  through  a  warming  up  period  of  imagina- 
tive, mental  doing  of  the  teaching  performance  becomes 
saturated  with  the  principles  of  correct  doing,  and  can  read- 
ily recognize  how  well  the  actual  act  of  teaching  measures 
up  to  the  more  perfect  imaginative  standard.  His  actual 
teaching  can  thus  be  made  the  starting-point  for  an  im- 
proved performance  in  the  future,  and  the  improvement  can 
be  secured  rather  rapidly.  The  value  of  the  work  of  the 
supervisor  hi  guiding  the  training  of  the  teacher  in  anticipa- 
tory imaginative  teaching  is  at  once  obvious. 

Observation  of  teaching.  A  second  phase  of  correct  theo- 
retical, mental  teaching  is  that  which  one  goes  through 
when  he  alertly  and  intelligently  observes  the  correct  teach- 
ing exhibited  by  the  expert  in  the  particular  line  of  teaching. 
The  observer  in  this  case  carries  on  the  mental  doing  of  the 
teaching  act  under  the  direct  sensory  stimulus  of  the  actual 
act  going  on  at  the  same  tune.  This  sort  of  imaginative, 
mental  performance  of  the  teaching  act  enables  the  teacher 
to  acquire  the  habit  and  skill  of  measuring  the  actual  act  of 
the  expert  teacher  as  it  progresses,  by  means  of  the  more 
perfect  imaginative  standard.  The  observer  has  an  oppor- 
tunity to  acquire  a  true  perspective  of  both  performances. 
Practice  in  measuring  the  actual  teaching  in  comparison 
with  the  more  ideal  performance  will  lay  the  foundation  for 
practice  hi  reversing  the  process. 

Finally,  then,  the  teacher  should  acquire  a  fair  degree  of 
skill  in  carrying  on  the  actual  act  of  teaching,  and  at  the 
same  time  keep  the  more  perfect  imagined  performance  or 


80  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

standard  clearly  enough  in  mind  to  be  able  to  check  up  the 
actual  teaching  against  the  standard,  somewhat  during  the 
recitation  itself,  but  particularly  after  the  recitation.  The 
suggestions  of  the  supervisor  will  be  one  of  the  means  by 
which  the  teacher  may  be  helped  in  doing  this.  The  out- 
come of  intelligent  observation  should  be  also  a  direct  con- 
tribution to  the  development  of  a  clear  conception  of  a  high 
standard  of  the  actual  teaching  performance.  That  is  to 
say,  the  teacher  should  possess  both  an  actual  standard  and 
a  more  perfect  imaginative  standard. 

Actual  instruction.  The  third  phase  in  learning  to  teach 
by  correct  teaching  is  that  of  performing  the  act  of  teaching 
by  direct,  conscious  imitation  of  the  standard  performance 
of  the  supervisor,  and  at  the  same  time  making  a  keen,  in- 
telligent analysis  of  the  processes  being  imitated.  The  bet- 
ter the  teaching  done  by  the  supervisor  and  the  more  per- 
fectly this  teaching  is  imitated  by  the  teacher,  the  more 
efficient  the  teacher  will  become,  provided,  of  course,  that 
the  teacher  analyzes  accurately  the  standard  he  imitates  and 
finally  discovers  the  principles  that  underlie  the  standard 
performance.  In  fact,  the  type  of  imitation  that  is  meant 
here  is  the  imitation  of  the  application  of  principles  to  the 
problems  of  teaching  rather  than  the  mere  mimicking  of  the 
specific  acts  of  the  expert  teacher.  In  this  sense  one  cannot 
imitate  unless  one  analyzes  the  validity  and  full  significance 
of  what  is  imitated.  The  teacher  should  not  ape  the  super- 
visor; that  is,  should  not  mimic  his  specific  acts. 

The  result  of  studied  imitation  of  the  type  just  suggested 
is  independence  and  finally  initiative  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  The  teacher  who  can  analyze  an  actual  teaching 
performance  to  discover  its  excellent  points  that  are  worthy 
of  imitation,  and  can  then  successfully  imitate  that  same 
skilled  performance,  or  even  approximate  it  in  an  actual  act 
of  teaching,  has  gone  far  on  the  road  toward  success  and 


OTHER  PRINCIPLES  87 

efficiency  in  teaching.  The  teacher  who  can  reproduce  an 
actual  performance  in  teaching  that  equals  or  even  approxi- 
mates a  standard  of  actual  teaching  will  soon  become  effi- 
cient in  imitating  in  his  teaching  the  more  perfect  theoreti- 
cal standards  that  he  sets  up  in  making  intelligent  lesson 
plans.  The  more  skill  one  acquires  in  imitating  or  even  ap- 
proximating the  theoretical  standards  of  teaching,  the  more 
skilled  his  actual  teaching  will  become,  for  one  can  always 
theorize  better  than  he  can  practice.  Conscious  imitation, 
then,  of  correct  teaching  is  a  definite  road  to  efficiency  in 
teaching. 

Directed  teaching.  Another  step  in  learning  to  teach  by 
correct  teaching  is  that  of  teaching  by  following  specific  di- 
rections and  instructions  in  an  intelligent  manner.  One 
cannot  carry  out  instructions  efficiently  without  accurately 
interpreting  the  meaning  of  the  directions.  Accurate  inter- 
pretation of  teaching  instructions  is  a  severe  test  of  the 
teacher's  intelligence  and  resourcefulness.  The  teacher  who 
cannot  understand  intelligent  directions  and  carry  them  out 
successfully  will  not  be  likely  to  make  very  intelligent  plans 
on  his  own  initiative.  On  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  who 
can  readily  comprehend  and  follow  instructions  literally  will 
be  able  to  plan  and  to  carry  out  intelligent  schemes  of  pro- 
cedure without  help.  Following  specific  directions  that  are 
given  by  an  expert  in  the  particular  line  of  teaching  is  an 
excellent  way  to  acquire  valuable  experience  and  to  attain 
skill  in  doing  things  definitely. 

Learning  to  do  definite  things  and  learning  to  do  things 
definitely  are  highly  valuable  phases  of  acquiring  skill  in 
correct  teaching.  As  the  teacher  acquires  skill  in  interpret- 
ing and  following  specific  detailed  instructions,  the  super- 
visor should  modify  the  instructions  so  that  they  become 
more  and  more  general.  This  process  of  modification  will 
leave  more  and  more  details  to  be  worked  out  by  the  teacher, 


88  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

until  finally  the  teacher  will  be  thoroughly  competent  to 
plan  entirely  on  his  own  initiative.  The  supervisor  can  now 
become  merely  an  adviser  and  make  suggestions  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  directions  which  the  teacher  himself  sets 
up  for  his  own  guidance  in  teaching. 

Practice  to  form  right  habits.  A  final  step  in  the  process 
of  learning  to  teach  by  correct  teaching  is  that  of  practicing 
with  the  attention  or  whole  conscious  effort  centered  upon 
the  forming  of  right  habits.  The  teacher  finally  arrives, 
through  the  training  that  comes  from  the  various  steps  of 
learning  to  teach  correctly,  at  the  place  where  he  is  fully 
aware  of  what  the  habits  are  that  he  should  make  perma- 
nent in  his  training.  He  must  now  have  opportunity  to 
plan  for  the  practice  upon  certain  definite  habits  and  then 
consciously  to  attend  to  the  process  of  putting  them  into 
practice.  This  is  a  vital  aspect  of  teacher  training.  The 
significance  of  it  is  that  every  habit  practiced  has  to  pass  the 
test  of  conscious  attention.  If  one  gives  close  attention  to 
the  thing  he  is  doing,  he  is  apt  to  discover  whether  it  is  good 
or  bad ;  therefore,  undesirable  habits  are  not  so  apt  to  creep 
in  unconsciously  and  become  set. 

Teaching  habits  to  be  made  automatic.  Another  inter- 
pretation that  should  be  made  of  the  principle  that  one 
learns  to  teach  by  correct  teaching  is  that  one  must  continue 
the  correct  teaching  until  the  habits  of  correct  teaching  be- 
come automatic.  Otherwise  the  process  of  learning  does 
not  pass  beyond  the  stage  of  mere  comprehension.  Correct 
habits  of  teaching  must  pass  beyond  the  stage  of  mere  com- 
prehension and  become  automatic  before  the  teacher  attains 
freedom  in  doing  things  spontaneously  upon  his  own  initia- 
tive. The  teacher  who  has  had  no  supervision  in  the  form- 
ing of  correct  habits  of  teaching,  and  who  goes  into  a  public 
school  system  to  teach  where  little  or  no  systematic  super- 
vision is  provided,  may  seem  to  have  a  great  opportunity  to 


OTHER  PRINCIPLES  89 

exercise  initiative.  This  is  true,  in  a  certain  sense,  but  such 
a  teacher  has  the  best  opportunity  in  the  world  for  forming 
many  incorrect  habits  of  teaching  which  will  be  very  diffi- 
cult to  break,  even  after  the  teacher  becomes  aware  that  the 
habits  are  bad  and  desires  to  get  away  from  them. 

There  is  a  vital  difference  between  initiative  that  is  based 
upon  the  unconscious  utilization  of  habits  that  have  been 
formed  in  keeping  with  sound  principles,  and  initiative  that 
means  merely  the  freedom  to  learn  things  by  the  trial-and- 
error  plan  of  doing.  Such  initiative  is  not  really  freedom, 
for  the  teacher  is  a  prey  to  his  own  ignorance  and  lack  of 
skill  in  teaching.  If  one  wishes  to  arrive  at  a  definite  goal  in 
the  shortest  time  possible,  one  must  travel  on  the  road  that 
leads  most  directly  to  the  goal.  The  most  direct  road  to  in- 
telligent initiative  hi  teaching  is  that  of  imitating  and  fol- 
lowing specific  directions  of  an  expert  teacher,  and  of  prac- 
ticing, with  conscious  attention  upon  the  task  of  forming 
right  habits,  until  a  reliable  body  of  correct  habits  has  been 
rendered  automatic.  The  danger  is  not  that  the  teacher 
will  become  too  automatic  in  his  habits,  but  that  he  will  not 
become  automatic  enough.  In  other  words,  habits  that  have 
not  become  thoroughly  automatic  require  too  much  atten- 
tion of  the  performer,  so  that  the  purpose  that  the  practice 
of  the  habits  is  to  further  is  largely  lost  sight  of  in  the  recita- 
tion. The  more  automatic  the  habits  have  become,  the 
more  unconsciously  they  are  performed ;  hence  the  attention 
of  the  teacher  is  fully  free  to  consider  the  real  goal  of  the 
recitation. 

2.  The  third  principle  of  method 

Breaking  up  incorrect  habits.  Incorrect  habits  of  teach- 
ing can  be  largely  if  not  wholly  avoided  and  prevented,  by 
practice  under  the  consistent  and  intelligent  guidance  and 
advice  of  the  supervisor,  especially  during  the  early  attempts 


90  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

of  the  teacher.  A  second  aspect  of  the  principle  is  that  in- 
correct habits  can  be  discovered  and  broken  up  before  they 
have  become  at  all  fixed  or  automatic.  This  is  a  funda- 
mental point.  Many  people  hold  the  idea  that  one  has  to 
make  errors  in  order  to  learn  the  correct  way  to  do  a  thing. 
They  argue  that  one  learns  as  much  from  his  mistakes  as  he 
does  from  the  things  he  gets  right.  A  common  expression  is 
that  "One  has  to  find  things  out  for  himself."  This  is  un- 
doubtedly correct  according  to  the  psychology  of  learning, 
but,  while  one  must  find  things  out  for  himself,  he  does  not 
have  to  find  them  out  by  himself.  The  intelligent  human 
being  can  learn  from  the  advice  and  explanations  of  one  who 
knows  what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong  without  committing 
the  error. 

If  this  is  not  true,  then  the  whole  psychology  of  appercep- 
tion is  false,  and  imagination  is  a. rather  useless  mental  proc- 
ess. The  individual  who  lacks  the  apperceptive  basis  that 
would  enable  him  to  understand  an  explanation  of  why  a 
certain  habit  is  not  good  is  hardly  ready  for  teaching  under 
supervision.  Such  an  individual  will  take  too  much  time 
acquiring  the  basis  if  he  has  to  acquire  it  from  practicing 
mistakes. 

Finding  out  things  for  and  by  one's  self.  What,  then,  is 
the  difference  between  finding  things  out  for  one's  self  and 
finding  them  out  by  one's  self?  The  psychological  explana- 
tion is  this;  if  a  person  really  knows  a  thing,  he  must  possess 
the  mental  elements  and  put  forth  the  mental  processes  that 
are  necessarily  involved  in  the  knowing  of  that  thing.  No 
other  person  can  do  this  for  the  individual.  This  being 
true,  then  the  problem  resolves  itself  into  determining  the 
kinds  of  agencies  that  may  stimulate  the  mind  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  put  forth  the  necessary  mental  processes  and  or- 
ganize the  essential  mental  elements.  If  the  learner  is  so 
situated  that  he  must  find  the  agencies  for  stimulating  his 


OTHER  PRINCIPLES  01 

mind  to  put  forth  the  mental  processes  and  to  organize  the 
mental  elements  in  his  own  immediate  acts,  then  he  learns 
what  is  wrong  or  right,  for  himself  and  by  himself.  If,  how- 
ever, the  learner  is  stimulated  to  set  up  the  mental  processes 
and  to  organize  the  essential  mental  elements  by  the  advice 
and  explanations  of  another  person,  then  he  learns  the  thing 
for  himself,  but  not  by  himself.  He  has  learned  for  himself 
what  the  race  or  some  other  individual  had  to  learn  by  him- 
self. In  other  words,  the  individual  has  learned  for  himself 
so  that  he  knows  full  well,  by  the  aid  of  the  supervisor,  the 
mistake  or  error,  without  going  through  the  actual  per- 
formance of  making  the  mistake. 

Application  to  teacher  training.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
important  arguments  that  can  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
point  of  view  that  some  hold  that  practice  schools  cannot  in 
any  true  sense  train  teachers  by  giving  them  genuine  experi- 
ence. In  fact,  it  is  the  basic  argument  upon  which  the  whole 
idea  of  education  by  means  of  schools  must  rest.  If  it  will 
not  hold,  then  the  present  generation  cannot  profit  by  the 
wisdom  of  the  past,  and  "book-lam in'"  is  an  empty  sham. 
That  being  true  would  mean  that  schools  are  a  sham,  for 
they  must  necessarily  deal  with  a  vast  amount  of  "book- 
larnin'";  or,  to  put  it  less  harshly,  they  must  engender  a 
great  amount  of  learning  from  and  by  means  of  books.  To 
point  the  argument  back  again  to  the  problem  under  dis- 
cussion, one  may  rightly  say  that  if  schools  in  general  are 
justified  agencies  of  education,  then  training  schools  are 
certainly  justified  agencies  for  educating  teachers.  And, 
finally,  if  the  training  school  is  a  justified  agency  for  train- 
ing teachers,  then  teacher-"  larnin' "  or,  better,  supervisor- 
"larnin"'  is  valid.  Furthermore,  the  work  of  the  supervi- 
sor in  keeping  the  teacher  from  practicing  incorrect  acts  of 
teaching  is  just  as  valid  as  that  of  directing  the  teacher  in 
putting  forth  correct  performances. 


92  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

Breaking  bad  habits;  training  schools  vs.  city  schools. 
The  problem  of  breaking  incorrect  habits  is  much  more 
prominent  and  perhaps  more  difficult  in  case  of  the  city 
supervisor  than  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  supervisor  hi  a  training 
school.  The  teacher  in  the  public  school  has  usually  had 
some  experience  in  teaching,  and  very  often  has  formed  a 
number  of  habits  in  technique  that  in  general  are  bad.  The 
teacher  is  often  satisfied  with  his  technique,  no  matter  how 
faulty  it  may  be,  and  tends  often  to  feel  resentful  toward  the 
criticisms  and  suggestions  of  the  supervisor. 

The  first  objective  that  the  supervisor  should  attain  is 
that  of  securing  a  receptive  attitude  toward  suggestions  and 
constructive  criticisms.  The  next  objective  is  that  of 
eliminating  the  faulty  habits  of  teaching  and  establishing 
correct  ones  in  their  stead.  This  objective  can  be  reached 
most  effectively  by  attacking  one  or  two  of  the  most  vital 
incorrect  habits  at  a  time,  and  continuing  the  attack  upon 
them  until  they  are  thoroughly  broken  up.  This  plan  in- 
sures a  steady  and  definite  progress  in  the  elimination  of  bad 
habits. 

If  too  many  bad  habits  are  attacked  at  once,  slow  progress 
will  be  made  in  breaking  them  up.  This  slowness  of  prog- 
ress is  due  to  less  concentration  of  attention  than  can  be  se- 
cured when  only  one  or  two  habits  are  under  consideration 
at  one  time.  The  fact  that  slow  progress  is  made  in  break- 
ing up  a  number  of  habits  that  the  teacher  recognizes  as  bad 
tends  to  discourage  the  teacher  and  makes  him  still  less  effi- 
cient than  he  would  otherwise  be.  The  success  attained  hi 
dealing  definitely  with  one  or  two  bad  habits  at  a  time  en- 
courages the  teacher  and  strengthens  his  appreciation  of  the 
value  of  the  work  of  the  supervisor.  The  teacher  gains  con- 
fidence in  his  ability  to  improve,  and  the  effect  of  this  atti- 
tude of  the  teacher  toward  his  own  work  is  inestimable. 


OTHER  PRINCIPLES  93 

5.  The  fourth  principle  of  method 

Developing  initiative  and  independence.  The  fourth 
principle  is  that  the  teacher  must  ultimately  be  given  ample 
opportunity  to  plan  and  cany  out  regular  teaching  work, 
and  be  responsible  for  every  phase  of  it,  without  suggestions 
or  help  of  any  kind  from  the  supervisor.  This  stage  of  the 
training  should  develop  the  habit  of  attacking  new  problems 
and  working  out  their  solution  independently.  Initiative  at 
this  stage  should  mean,  as  perhaps  never  before,  the  habit  of 
going  into  things  thoroughly  and  intelligently.  Up  to  this 
time  the  teacher  has  consulted  the  supervisor  before  attack- 
ing new  problems  in  order  that  he  might  acquire  most  rap- 
idly the  insight  into  correct  principles  of  teaching  and  be 
safeguarded  against  forming  incorrect  habits.  Now,  how- 
ever, the  teacher  comes  to  the  final  test  as  to  whether  the 
training  given  under  the  guidance  of  the  supervisor  has  laid 
the  foundation  for  thoroughgoing  initiative. 

The  supervisor  must  now  keep  hands  off,  and  keep  out  of 
the  teacher's  way.  The  time  has  now  come  for  applying  the 
standards  by  which  the  work  of  the  teacher  should  be  judged 
and  finally  ranked.  It  is  also  the  time  for  the  supervisor  to 
apply  the  standards  that  should  be  employed  in  measuring 
the  effectiveness  of  the  work  of  supervision.  The  work  of 
the  supervisor  at  this  stage  of  the  training  is  that  of  a  sym- 
pathetic visitor,  who  is  anxious  to  see  the  teacher  at  his  best 
and  who  is  looking  for  the  best  that  the  teacher  exhibits  in 
his  work. 

Summary  of  the  section.  The  method  of  supervision  is 
based  upon  four  fundamental  principles:  First,  the  teacher 
and  supervisor  must  possess  common  knowledge  and  hold 
common  points  of  view  concerning  the  school,  the  pupils, 
the  subject-matter,  the  principles  of  method  of  teaching, 
principles  of  devices,  principles  of  technique,  the  standards 


04  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

by  which  teaching  should  be  judged,  the  responsibility  and 
authority  of  each  in  matters  of  management,  and  the  pur- 
pose of  the  work  of  supervision.  This  basis  enables  teacher 
and  supervisor  intelligently  to  understand  one  another  in 
everything  that  they  do  in  cooperation.  Second,  one  learns 
to  teach  by  correct  teaching.  Third,  errors  are  not  neces- 
sary to  further  the  learning  process,  and  incorrect  habits 
may  be  avoided  and  prevented  through  the  advice  and  guid- 
ance of  the  supervisor.  Fourth,  the  test  of  guided  teaching 
is  whether  or  not  it  lays  the  foundation  for  independent 
thinking  and  initiative  in  discovering  and  solving  new  prob- 
lems. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Give  five  examples  from  daily  life  to  show  that  one  goes  through  the 
mental  performance  of  doing  things  in  anticipation  of  being  called 
upon  actually  to  do  them. 

2.  Give  a  description  of  your  mental  performance  that  went  on  in  antici- 
pation of  your  first  day  in  the  schoolroom  as  a  teacher. 

8.  Describe  your  actual  performance  on  that  first  day  of  school,  and 
check  it  with  the  anticipatory  mental  performance  to  see  how  nearly 
they  coincide. 

4.  Analyze  as  accurately  as  you  can  your  mental  performance  on  your 
first  observation  of  an  expert  teacher's  presentation  of  a  particular 
lesson.     To  what  extent  were  you  able  to  anticipate  the  successive 
acts  performed  by  the  teacher?    Did  the  ability  to  foresee  the  acts  of 
the  teacher  develop  with  practice  in  such  observation? 

5.  Give  five  illustrations  of  actual  imitative  performances  that  were  as 
exact  copies  of  the  original  performances  as  the  imitators  were  able 
to  make  them. 

6.  Give  two  illustrations  of  actual  imitative  performances  that  followed 
the  same  principles  that  underlay  the  original  performances,  but 
adapted  the  acts  or  steps  to  suit  the  particular  situation. 

7.  Give  four  or  five  illustrations  from  your  experience  that  show  how 
difficult  it  is  to  give  a  set  of  directions  that  will  be  proof  against  mis- 
interpretations. 

8.  Make  a  set  of  directions  that  would  enable  another  person  to  go, 
without  loss  of  time  and  without  securing  other  aid,  to  a  certain  place 
in  a  particular  city,  or  large  town,  or  country;  to  a  certain  room  in  a 
large  building;  to  secure  a  certain  book  from  a  shelf  in  a  particular 
library  of  some  size. 


OTHER  PRINCIPLES  95 

9.  Give  five  examples  from  your  own  experience  of  the  effect  upon  habit 
formation  of  concentration  of  attention  upon  the  steps  of  the  habit. 

10.  Give  as  many  examples  as  you  can  from  your  own  experience  of  teach- 
ing habits  that  have  become  automatic. 

11.  Give  five  examples  from  your  own  experiences,  outside  of  school,  of 
errors  that  you  have  avoided  by  being  advised  ahead  of  time. 

12.  Give  five  examples,  from  your  own  experiences,  of  errors  that  you 
have  avoided  by  being  advised  by  some  experienced  individual. 

13.  Give  five  examples,  from  experience,  of  faulty  habits  that  were  read- 
ily broken  up  through  advice  and  supervision  in  the  first  stages  of 
their  formation. 

14.  Give  one  or  more  examples  in  which  the  supervisor  hindered  the 
development  of  the  teacher  by  failing  to  put  the  teacher  on  his  own 
responsibility  at  the  proper  time  in  his  training. 


SELECTED  REFERENCES  FOR  SECTION  A 

Ayer,  Fred  C.  Eighteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education; 
chap,  v,  "Present  Status  of  Drawing  with  respect  to  Scientific  Investiga- 
tion." 

Discusses  principles  of  method. 

Belts,  George  Herbert.     Classroom  Method  and  Management. 

Excellent  discussion  of  general  problems. 
Charters,  W.  W.      Methods  of  Teaching. 

Splendid  discussion  of  method  from  view  point  of  function. 
Charters,  W.  W.     Teaching  the  Common  Branches. 

Good  discussion  of  special  application  of  principles  of  method. 

Freeman,  Frank  N.  Eighteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education;  chap,  i,  "Principles  of  Method  in  Teaching  Writing,  as  De- 
rived from  Scientific  Investigation." 

Excellent  account  of  the  findings  and  conclusions  drawn. 
Freeman,  Frank  N.     How  Children  Learn. 

Splendid  analysis. 

Gray,  Wm.  S.  Eighteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education; 
chap,  ii,  "  Principles  of  Method  in  Teaching  Reading,  as  Derived  from 
Scientific  Investigation." 

Excellent  discussion  and  interpretation  of  the  findings. 

Hall,  G.  S.  Adolescence;  Its  Psychology  and  its  Relations  to  Physiology, 
Anthropology,  Sociology,  Sex,  Crime,  Religion,  and  Education.  2  vols. 

Valuable  for  the  concrete  data  accumulated. 

Horn,  Ernest.  Eighteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education; 
chap,  in,  "  Principles  of  Method  in  Teaching  Spelling  as  Derived  from 
Scientific  Investigation." 

Excellent  discussion  of  principles,  which  are  well  stated. 
Judd,  C.  H.     The  Pm/c.hology  of  the  High-School  Subjects. 

Excellent  and  stimulating  discussion  of  application  of  psychological  principles  to  con- 
crete teaching  problems. 


96  SUPERVISORY  METHOD 

Kendall,  Calvin  N.,  and  Mirick,  Geo.  A.    How  to  Teach  the  Special  Subjects, 

Good  practical  discussion  of  elementary-school  teaching  problems. 
King,  Irving.     The  High-School  Age. 

Stimulating  discussion  of  adolescent  life. 
Kirkpatrick,  Edwin  E.     Fundamentals  of  Child  Study. 

Comprehensive  discussion  of  most  vital  issues. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  Eighteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education;  chap,  iv,  "Principles  of  Method  in  Teaching  Arithmetic  as 
Derived  from  Scientific  Investigation." 

Excellent  account  of  experiments  and  summing-up  of  principles. 
Parker,  S.  C.     Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  School. 

Principles  thoroughly  discussed  and  amply  illustrated. 

Thorndike,  Edward  L.  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  in.  "  Mental  Work 
and  Fatigue,  and  Individual  Differences  and  their  Causes." 

Comprehensive  account  of  experimental  data  and  discussion  of   principles  thug 
derived. 

Wilson,  H.  B.,  and  Wilson,  G.  M.     The  Motivation  of  School  Work. 
Gives  concrete  data  and  very  helpful  suggestions. 


SECTION  B 

DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 
CHAPTER 


PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN  THE  SELECTION  OF 
DEVICES 

THE  significance  of  the  principles  involved  in  the  selection 
of  devices  will  be  more  readily  seen  by  again  getting  clearly 
in  mind  the  definition  of  device.  A  device  is  any  means, 
other  than  subject-matter  itself,  employed  by  the  teacher  in 
presenting  subject-matter  to  the  mind  of  the  learner. 

Devices  should  be  economical.  One  of  the  important 
phases  of  economy  is  the  saving  of  time  for  the  supervisor. 
A  device  may  require  a  considerable  amount  of  time  to  work 
it  out  thoroughly  and  completely  in  the  beginning,  but,  if 
the  device  is  a  permanent  one  that  may  be  used  for  a  long 
time  and  with  very  little  modification  from  time  to  time, 
then  the  device  is  an  economical  one.  By  economy  of  time 
for  the  supervisor,  one  should  consider  the  ultimate  amount 
of  time,  and  not  the  immediate  amount  that  is  required  for 
the  preparation  of  a  thoroughgoing,  permanent  device. 

The  idea  of  permanency  of  devices  should  be  emphasized. 
Devices  have  been  poorly  selected  if  they  have  to  be  dis- 
carded when  the  same  situation  is  to  be  dealt  with  again  and 
again.  For  example,  a  set  of  general  instructions  to  begin- 
ning teachers  is  a  good  device.  If  these  instructions  are 
thoroughly  organized  and  clearly  stated,  then  printed  forms 
may  be  used  for  a  number  of  years  without  any  changes  be- 
ing necessary.  The  working-out  of  such  a  set  of  instructions 
would  require  some  time  and  care,  but  the  permanency  of  it 


98  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

would  save  the  time  and  energy  of  the  supervisor  in  the  long 
run.  The  following  is  an  example  of  such  a  set  of  permanent 
directions: 

OREAD  TRAINING  SCHOOL 

GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS  TO  SENIOR  TEACHERS 

Caution. 

1.  Read  these  instructions  carefully.     Be  sure  that  you  under- 
stand them.     Go  over  them  each  day  before  going  to  class 
until  you  have  thoroughly  mastered  them  and  can  carry 
them  out  automatically. 

Conferences. 

2.  Confer  with  the  supervisor  of  the  course  before  beginning 
the  work. 

S.  Teachers'  meeting  every  Wednesday,  at  8  A.M.     This  is  a 
part  of  the  teacher's  work,  and  absence  from  these  meetings 
will  count  the  same  as  absence  from  the  teaching  hour. 
Absence. 

4.  When  absence  from  any  of  the  work  is  unavoidable,  the 
teacher  must  notify  the  director  and  also  the  supervisor  of 
the  work  in  ample  time  for  provision  to  be  made  for  the  class. 
All  requests  for  absence  must  be  made  to  the  director  of  the 
school. 

Class  schedule. 

5.  The  Oread  class  schedule:  (a)  All  classes  meet  five  days  per 
week;  (6)  all  sciences  have  double  periods  for  laboratory  two 
days  per  week;  (c)  all  classes  begin  and  close  according  to  the 
schedule   of   hours   that   governs   the   University   classes; 
(d)  whenever  University  classes  are  set  aside  for  convocation, 
holiday,  or  special  occasion,  the  Oread  classes  are  set  aside 
for  the  same  periods  of  time. 

6.  Do  not  dismiss  the  class  before  the  end  of  the  period.     Do 
not  permit  students  to  leave  the  room  before  the  end  of  the 
period  on  quiz  days. 

Lesson  plans. 

7.  Weekly  lesson  plans  are  required  from  the  beginning.     In 
making  out  the  advance  lesson  plans  on  blank  A,  give  the 
full  outline  of  the  assignment  as  it  will  be  given  to  the  class. 
Blank  B  should  give  the  exact  order  of  procedure  and  the 


THE  SELECTION  OF  DEVICES  99 

work  actually  done.  Both  blanks  are  due  in  the  director's 
office  on  Monday  before  the  class  period,  the  A  blank  for  the 
week  just  beginning,  and  the  B  blank  for  the  week  just  past. 
These  must  be  in  on  time  to  be  of  value  and  to  be  fully 
credited. 

8.  A  copy  of  all  quiz  questions  must  be  filed  in  the  office  at  least 
one  day  before  the  quiz  is  to  be  given. 

Class  records. 

9.  Enter  the  names  of  students  in  the  class  record  in  alpha- 
betical order,  giving  the  surname  first. 

10.  Enroll  only  those  who  have  class  cards  properly  signed. 

11.  Keep  the  class  record  according  to  the  following  system  of 
marking:  E  for  entered;  W  for  withdrawn;  X  in  lower  half  of 
square  for  present;  T  for  tardy;  A  for  excused  absence; 
A/O  for  unexcused  absence. 

12.  Require  each  student  to  present  an  excuse  signed  by  the 
director  for  each  absence  or  tardiness.      Sign  the  excuse. 
Return  it  to  the  office  if  you  are  the  last  teacher  who  should 
receive  it. 

Reports. 

13.  Report  all  absences  and  tardiness  each  day  before  leaving 
the  building. 

14.  Report  unsatisfactory  work  at  once  to  the  office.     Have  a 
conference  immediately  with  each  student  who  is  doing  un- 
satisfactory work.    Report  each  conference  to  the  office  with- 
out delay.    Use  the  regular  blanks  provided  for  these  reports. 

15.  Report  cards  are  issued  to  the  students  at  the  close  of  each 
nine  weeks.     Get  these  cards  from  the  office  on  Monday  of 
the  ninth  week.    Issue  them  to  the  students  on  Wednesday. 
Take  them  up  and  return  them  to  the  office  on  Friday. 

Grading  of  students. 

16.  Enter  a  grade  in  per  cent  for  each  week.    This  grade  is  the 
summation  or  average  of  all  the  items  of  work  required. 
Enter  a  final  grade  in  capital  letters  at  the  close  of  each  nine 
weeks.    This  grade  is  the  summation  or  average  of  class  work, 
oral  and  written  quizzes,  notebook,  etc.     Enter  also  a  final 
grade  in  per  cent  for  each  item  that  goes  to  make  up  the 
capital  letter  grade.     Indicate  what  part  each  item  is  of  the 
final  grade.     The  capitals  used  are:  A,  B,  C,  D;  and  F  ior 
failure,  Cond.  for  conditioned.     State  the  terms  of  the  con- 
dition.   Use  "No  Ex"  for  not  examined. 


100  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

Conferences  with  students. 

17.  Encourage  students  to  come  to  you  voluntarily  for  confer- 
ences about  their  work.     Set  a  regular  conference  hour  that 
will  enable  the  students  to  meet  you.     Give  them  your  name, 
telephone  number,  and  street  address,  and  encourage  them  to 
call  you  up  about  their  work,  especially  when  they  are  ab- 
sent from  class.     Indicate  the  time  when  they  can  be  surest 
of  reaching  you. 

18.  Decide  what  kinds  of  work  can  be  made  up  by  the  student 
when  he  has  missed  the  recitation  and  what  kinds  cannot  be 
made  up.     Have  a  definite  plan  for  the  making  up  of  each 
kind  of  work.     Set  a  definite  time  within  which  the  work 
must  be  done. 

19.  Watch  the  bulletin  board  daily  for  announcements. 

The  following  list  of  instructions  to  teachers  which  might 
well  be  used  by  a  supervising  principal  or  a  superintendent 
in  a  small  school  system  is  another  example  of  such  a  perma- 
nent set  of  directions: 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO  REGULAR  TEACHERS 

School  sessions. 

A.  First  day  of  school. 

a.  Assemble  the  pupils  promptly  at  the  regular  time  for 
beginning  the  school  day. 

b.  Secure  the  names  of  the  pupils. 

c.  Determine  positively  that  each  pupil  belongs  in  your 
room. 

d.  Give  the  pupils  the  list  of  books  and  other  materials  that 
they  need. 

0.  Dismiss  the  pupils  for  the  day. 

/.  Devote  the  remainder  of  the  day  to  arranging  your  pro- 
gram and  organizing  your  work  for  the  week. 

B.  Regular  school  days. 

a.  Keep  the  school  full  time  unless  instructed  to  dismiss 
earlier. 

b.  Provide  in  your  program  for  two  ten-minute  intermis- 
sions during  each  session. 

C.  Holidays. 

a.  School  will  not  be  in  session  on  Labor  Day,  Thanks- 


THE  SELECTION  OF  DEVICES          /     101 

xj?^  *^  S 

giving  Day  anaT^^d^Oltft^Ut^lJ^om.Ji'fiaay  before 
Christmas  until  theOTWitejiEteH«WHig,  New  Year's 
Day,  Washington's  Birthday,  Columbus  Day,  Decora- 
tion Day. 

D.  Last  day  of  each  semester. 

a.  The  pupils  will  come  for  their  reports  at  the  last  hour  in 
the  school  day. 

E.  Teachers'  meetings. 

a.  Meetings  will  be  held  at  the  central  building  every  two 

weeks  on  Friday  at  3.30.    Dismiss  at  3  on  those  days. 
SuppZiw. 

A.  Send  an  accurate  itemized  estimate  of  all  supplies  needed  for 
the  following  month  to  the  principal  on  Monday  of  the  last 
week  of  each  month. 

B.  See  that  supplies  are  not  wasted  or  destroyed. 
Records. 

A.  Keep  accurate  daily  records  of  pupils'  grades,  absences,  and 
tardiness. 

B.  Keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  amount  of  each  kind  of 
material  used  per  pupil  for  the  year.    This  is  important  as  a 
basis  for  estimating  the  amount  of  supplies  needed  for  the 
succeeding  year. 

C.  Keep  a  record  of  parental  visits  to  the  school. 
Reports. 

A.  Report  all  absences  to  the  principal  at  the  beginning  of  each 
school  session. 

B.  Report  promptly  concerning  any  school  property  that  needs 
looking  after,  such  as  broken  windows,  damaged  window 
shades,  etc. 

C.  Report  promptly  when  the  temperature  of  the  schoolroom 
is  too  low  for  comfort  and  health.     If  the  condition  cannot 
be  satisfactorily  remedied  within  an  hour,  dismiss  school  for 
the  remainder  of  the  half-day  session  or  whole-day  session 
according  to  the  conditions. 

D.  Report  promptly  any  seeming  indications  of  possible  break- 
ing out  in  school  of  contagious  diseases. 

General  management. 

A.  Teachers  in  charge  of  playgrounds,  halls,  and  toilet-rooms 
during  intermissions  will  have  control  over  all  pupils  under 
their  supervision. 

B.  Allow  only  one  pupil  to  be  abse^  frow^'e  rbom\t  a  timo    ^ 
during  class  hours. 


(i 


10*  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

C.  Instruct  pupils  to  report  all  found  articles  at  the  office,  and 
to  inquire  there  for  lost  articles.     Do  not  permit  pupils  to  go 
from  room  to  room  to  inquire  for  lost  articles  or  for  owners  of 
found  articles. 

D.  Be  alert  to  respond  to  the  fire  alarm  at  any  time.    You  will 
not  be  notified  as  to  whether  it  is  for  drill  or  actual  fire. 

E.  The  teacher  should,  except  in  very  extreme  cases,  handle  all 
matters  of  discipline  without  appealing  to  the  principal. 

F.  Keep  luncheon  pupils  in  the  room  until  the  others  have  passed 
out  of  the  building,  then  send  them  to  the  lunch  room. 

G.  Pupils  should  not  remain  in  the  room  during  intermissions 
except  in  special  cases. 

H.  Pupils  should  not  enter  the  building  before  the  time  for  class- 
work  to  begin,  except  in  inclement  weather,  and  special  indi- 
vidual cases. 
I.  Supplementary  books  furnished  by  the  school  should  not  be 

taken  from  the  building. 

J.  Pupils  should  be  assembled  and  dismissed  in  orderly  fashion. 
K.  Home  study  should  not  be  assigned  to  grade  pupils. 

Saving  the  time  of  the  teacher.  Another  phase  of  econ- 
omy is  the  saving  of  the  time  of  the  teacher.  The  use  of  the 
device  ought  to  save  time  according  to  the  results  to  be  se- 
cured. Take  again  the  example  just  mentioned  of  the 
printed  instructions  to  beginning  teachers.  This  device 
gives  the  teacher  an  opportunity  to  study  the  instructions 
thoroughly  and  to  keep  looking  them  over  until  their  signifi- 
cance is  thoroughly  understood  and  the  duties  they  enjoin 
are  made  habit.  If  the  teachers  had  to  receive  these  in- 
structions verbally  from  the  supervisor,  they  would  have  to 
take  the  time  to  copy  them  before  they  could  be  mastered. 
Errors  in  copying  would  occur  and  confusion  on  important 
points  would  result.  Count  up  the  amount  of  the  teachers' 
time  that  would  be  consumed  through  giving  general  in- 
structions orally  and  it  will  certainly  convince  one  that  a 
device  should  conserve  the  teachers'  time. 

Conservation  of  materials.  Another  form  of  economy  in 
devices  is  that  of  the  conservation  of  materials  consumed. 


THE  SELECTION  OF  DEVICES  103 

Economy  of  the  materials  must  be  judged  in  the  light  of  the 
results  obtained.  The  printed  instruction  sheet,  for  exam- 
ple, would  be  economical  compared  to  oral  instructions  in 
the  light  of  the  results  obtained.  The  sheet  itself  may  be 
planned  in  such  a  way  as  to  save  space  without  decreasing 
the  effectiveness  of  the  device.  If  the  print  is  too  small,  the 
conservation  of  material  cripples  the  effectiveness  of  the  de- 
vice and  no  genuine  economy  has  been  effected.  Here  again 
comes  in  the  idea  of  permanency  of  the  device.  A  device 
that  can  be  used  only  once,  or  a  very  few  times  at  most, 
wastes  materials  to  no  good  purpose.  For  instance,  a 
printed  form  for  a  daily  lesson  plan  would  be  wasteful  and 
ineffective  if  the  items  in  it  were  changed  every  semester,  or 
every  year  or  two,  so  that  the  old  forms  not  used  up  would 
have  to  be  discarded.  This  conservation  of  materials  should 
be  taken  into  account  in  working  out  devices,  so  that  the 
greatest  care  will  be  exercised  in  making  the  devices  as  per- 
fect and  permanent  as  possible. 

Another  phase  of  economy  of  materials  used  is  the  cost  of 
permanent  materials.  The  first  cost  of  hectographed  or 
mimeographed  sheets  of  instructions,  for  instance,  would  no 
doubt  be  less  than  the  cost  of  printed  sheets,  but  the  printed 
sheets  are  of  better  material,  or  should  be,  and  in  the  long 
run  they  are  more  economical  from  a  cost  standpoint.  Take 
the  course  of  study  in  a  subject  as  another  illustration.  A 
printed  course  will  be  more  durable  and  serviceable  than  a 
mimeographed  outline,  although  the  first  cost  will  be  greater. 
The  point,  then,  is  that  for  permanent  devices  the  economy 
is  not  in  the  cheapness  of  materials,  but  in  securing  the  most 
satisfactory  and  usable  materials. 

Economy  a  relative  matter.  The  principle  of  economy  in 
devices  is  a  relative  matter,  as  has  been  shown  by  the  above 
discussion,  and  it  must  be  worked  out  in  relation  to  the  other 
principles  that  are  important  to  consider  in  the  selection  of 


104  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

devices  as  well  as  in  keeping  with  the  four  aspects  of  econ- 
omy that  have  just  been  set  forth.  The  dominant  idea  that 
should  determine  whether  the  devices  used  by  the  supervisor 
are  economical  or  not  is  that  of  the  time  saved  in  getting 
things  well  done.  Devices  that  are  effective  in  saving  time 
for  both  supervisor  and  teacher  must  necessarily  eliminate 
the  waste  that  is  entailed  by  the  inefficiency  of  a  device  that 
consumes  time  to  no  good  purpose.  In  other  words,  to  save 
time  and  yet  do  a  piece  of  work  thoroughly  and  efficiently, 
one  must  do  only  necessary  things;  that  is,  one  must  deal 
with  just  the  essentials.  The  value  of  learning  to  do  things 
definitely  and  concisely  is  very  great.  One  cannot  do  things 
concisely  without  having  a  definite,  clear-cut  goal  in  view. 
Therefore,  the  working-out  of  devices  that  economize  time 
insure  a  clarity  of  thinking  and  direct  attack  upon  specific 
problems  in  training  and  directing  teachers. 

Devices  should  be  effective.  One  criterion  of  the  effec- 
tiveness of  devices  is  the  immediate  results  that  come  from 
the  use  of  the  devices.  The  value  of  the  immediate  results 
should  be  commensurate  with  the  time,  energy,  and  cost  in- 
volved in  the  use  of  the  devices.  The  giving  of  general  in- 
structions, for  example,  in  printed  form  consumes  little  time 
and  energy  on  the  part  of  both  supervisor  and  teachers. 
The  immediate  results  are  perhaps  as  great  as  could  be  se- 
cured from  the  use  of  any  other  form  of  device.  If  these 
same  instructions  are  given  orally,  the  supervisor  can  dis- 
cuss the  points  and  illustrate  the  significance  of  the  various 
instructions.  This  might  mean  that  the  immediate  results 
are  more  effective  than  they  are  when  the  printed  instruc- 
tions are  used.  The  difference,  however,  in  the  immediate 
results  that  are  secured  by  the  oral  device  and  those  secured 
by  the  printed  instructions  is  not  commensurate  with  the 
difference  in  time  and  energy  consumed  by  the  use  of  the 
oral  and  printed  devices  respectively.  Moreover,  the  im« 


THE  SELECTION  OF  DEVICES  105 

mediate  results  secured  from  the  use  of  the  printed  device 
are  highly  satisfactory. 

Another  criterion  of  the  effectiveness  of  devices  is  the  ul- 
timate results  that  are  secured  through  their  use.  The  ulti- 
mate results,  likewise,  should  be  commensurate  with  the 
time,  energy,  cost,  and  immediate  results  involved  in  the 
use  of  the  particular  devices  considered.  The  ultimate  re- 
sults of  one  device  should  also  be  compared  with  the  im- 
mediate and  ultimate  results  of  other  devices.  The  ulti- 
mate results  of  the  printed  instructions,  for  example,  far 
surpass  both  the  immediate  and  the  ultimate  results  of  the 
oral  instructions,  for  they  afford  a  longer  period  of  study  and 
they  can  be  consulted  again  and  again  in  the  face  of  actual 
situations  that  call  for  their  application.  The  ultimate  re- 
sults of  the  printed  devices  also  greatly  augment  the  im- 
mediate results  and  build  directly  upon  them.  This  not 
only  makes  the  printed  device  more  effective,  but  also  more 
economical  from  the  standpoint  of  permanent  habit  forma- 
tion. 

Devices  should  be  usable.  One  criterion  of  the  usability 
of  devices  is  the  frequency  with  which  they  may  be  employed 
to  advantage.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  more  fre- 
quently the  devices  can  be  used  effectively  the  better  they 
are.  The  printed  instructions  measure  up  satisfactorily  in 
this  regard.  They  can  be  used  term  after  term  without 
modification  or  extra  effort  in  preparing  them  for  use.  A 
device  that  could  be  used  only  at  long  intervals  must  be 
found  valuable  for  other  reasons  than  the  frequency  with 
which  it  may  be  employed. 

A  second  criterion  of  the  usability  of  devices  is  the  extent 
to  which  they  can  be  employed  in  different  subjects  and 
situations.  Take,  for  example,  a  detailed  plan  for  daily 
recitation.  A  well-organized  plan  should  be  usable  for 
practically  every  day's  lessons  and  for  all  subjects.  Such  a 


106  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

form  should  be  inclusive  so  that  the  essential  items  that  may 
enter  into  any  recitation  will  be  definitely  considered.  The 
items  that  do  not  happen  to  come  into  a  particular  recita- 
tion can  easily  be  left  blank.  The  fact  that  the  form  con- 
tains all  the  essential  items  that  are  necessary  to  be  included 
in  recitations  at  different  times  renders  the  device  all  the 
more  effective  because  of  the  suggestiveness  of  such  a  con- 
stant reminder  of  the  points  concerning  which  decision  must 
be  made  when  making  a  detailed  daily  lesson  plan. 

A  third  criterion  of  usability  is  the  accessibility  of  the  de- 
vices when  they  are  needed.  The  printed  instructions  for 
beginning  teachers  and  printed  forms  for  daily  lesson  plans 
are  good  examples  of  devices  that  are  readily  accessible 
when  needed.  Suppose  the  supervisor  depends  upon  giving 
instructions,  as  they  seem  to  be  needed,  through  the  device 
of  teachers'  meetings,  then  the  device  is  not  readily  accessi- 
ble, for  such  a  meeting  cannot  be  held  at  just  any  and  all 
times.  Accessibility,  then,  is  an  item  that  should  be  given 
very  careful  consideration  hi  planning  and  selecting  devices. 

Devices  should  not  be  too  numerous.  The  number  of  de- 
vices employed  by  the  supervisor,  especially  to  accomplish 
the  same  purpose,  should  not  be  multiplied  needlessly.  One 
carefully  selected  device  that  has  been  highly  perfected  will 
accomplish  more  than  several  devices  more  spontaneously 
selected  and  less  thoroughly  organized  and  perfected.  Sup- 
pose, for  example,  the  supervisor  undertakes  to  use  teachers' 
meetings,  bulletin  board,  hurriedly  written  mimeographed 
sheets,  announcements  in  classrooms,  and  individual  verbal 
notifications  as  devices  for  giving  instructions.  The  very 
multiplicity  of  devices  is  confusing  to  the  supervisor  and 
even  more  confusing  to  the  teachers.  The  supervisor  makes 
hurried  decisions  as  to  which  device  to  use  for  a  particular 
kind  of  instruction,  and  often  chooses  the  one  that  is  least 
effective  for  that  particular  situation  and  time.  The  teach- 


THE  SELECTION  OF  DEVICES  107 

ers  are  confused  as  to  what  form  is  to  be  looked  to  for  im- 
portant information.  They  get  to  relying  on  one  form  and 
miss  the  instructions  when  they  are  issued  in  another  form. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  supervisor  depends  entirely 
upon  a  printed  sheet  for  giving  all  general  instructions,  and 
perfects  this  device  until  it  includes  all  essential  items,  well 
organized  and  classified,  then  there  is  no  confusion  on  the 
part  of  either  teachers  or  supervisor.  The  supervisor  knows 
when  the  full  instructions  are  in  the  possession  of  the  teach- 
ers, and  the  teachers  know  how  to  keep  fully  posted  as  to 
their  general  duties. 

Devices  should  not  be  too  meager.  The  work  of  the  su- 
pervisor may  be  seriously  handicapped  if  the  number  of  de- 
vices is  too  meager.  While  a  multiplicity  of  devices  is  apt 
to  be  confusing,  a  paucity  of  them  is  likely  to  be  deadening. 
Take  the  problem  of  coming  to  a  common  agreement  upon 
the  dominant  mental  traits  of  childhood  or  adolescence,  for 
example.  Here  the  supervisor  might  first  give  an  oral  dis- 
cussion of  these  mental  characteristics.  Then  he  might 
give  the  teachers  definite  references  to  books  on  psychology 
that  would  give  these  same  mental  tendencies,  and  finally 
he  might  put  printed  or  mimeographed  copies  of  a  well-or- 
ganized list  of  these  dominant  mental  traits  and  tendencies 
into  the  hands  of  the  teachers.  Each  device  has  brought  the 
materials  before  the  teachers  in  a  different  form,  and  in  this 
way  has  secured  prolonged  attention  and  study  with  the 
interest  that  comes  through  comparison,  verification,  and 
completeness  of  knowledge.  Any  one  of  these  devices  alone 
would  not  have  accomplished  the  same  results.  Paucity  of 
devices,  then,  may  readily  lead  to  indifference  and  ineffec- 
tive or  partial  mastery  of  very  important  subject-matter. 

Devices  should  bear  a  logical  relation  to  the  end  they  are 
to  aid  in  accomplishing.  For  example,  putting  a  printed 
list  of  the  dominant  mental  traits  of  childhood  into  the  pos- 


108  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

session  of  the  teacher  is  logically  related  to  the  aim  of  secur- 
ing a  body  of  common  knowledge  concerning  children.  The 
use  of  the  bulletin  board  as  a  means  of  giving  specific  in- 
structions to  individual  teachers  is  using  a  device  that  is  not 
logically  related  to  the  end  it  is  to  further.  One  does  not 
naturally  look  to  a  bulletin  board  for  other  than  general  an- 
nouncements; hence  it  is  not  a  good  medium  for  giving  de- 
tailed information  to  a  considerable  number  of  people.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  bulletin  board  is  a  logical  device  for  dis- 
seminating general  news  and  emergency  information. 

Devices  should  be  a  means.  The  devices  used  by  super- 
visors should  never  become  an  end  in  themselves,  but  should 
always  be  the  means  of  accomplishing  definite  ends.  There- 
fore the  devices  should  not  attract  attention  to  themselves, 
but  they  should  be  the  means  of  centering  the  attention  of 
teachers  upon  the  things  that  are  to  be  mastered,  and  they 
should  make  the  mastery  of  these  things  more  readily  and 
effectively  accomplished.  This  point  should  be  clear  and 
emphatic  in  the  mind  of  the  supervisor.  The  supervisor 
should  not  become  so  engrossed  in  the  problem  of  inventing 
devices  that  his  attention  is  more  upon  the  devices  than  it  is 
upon  the  results  to  be  obtained  by  using  the  devices.  In 
other  words,  the  manipulation  of  any  device  ought  not  to 
detract  the  attention  from  the  consideration  of  the  matter 
that  is  being  presented  by  means  of  the  device. 

Take,  for  example,  the  form  for  a  daily  lesson  plan.  The 
device  is  to  aid  in  securing  a  systematic,  definite  preparation 
and  thorough  organization  of  the  lesson  in  advance  of  the 
recitation.  The  supervisor  may  become  so  engrossed  with 
getting  just  certain  items  —  such  as  the  five  formal  steps, 
for  instance  —  put  down  in  a  regular  order  in  every  plan 
that  he  loses  sight  of  the  purpose  for  which  the  device  was 
invented.  Then  the  device  gets  in  its  own  way  and  the  best 
results  cannot  be  secured.  The  matter  of  chief  concern  to 


THE  SELECTION  OF  DEVICES  109 

the  teacher  is  that  of  getting  every  item  down  just  so.  That 
is  to  say,  the  teacher  is  engrossed  with  manipulating  the  de- 
vice so  that  every  cog  of  the  machine  is  there,  whether  it  is 
of  any  service  in  the  particular  lesson  or  not.  A  form  for  a 
daily  lesson  plan  is  a  good  device  that  will  train  teachers  in 
the  ability  and  skill  to  do  things  thoroughly  and  definitely. 
Such  a  form,  however,  should  be  suggestive  and  not  manda- 
tory. It  should  be  inclusive,  but  adaptable.  The  teacher 
should  be  free  to  bend  the  device  to  the  helpful  purpose  it  is 
intended  to  serve. 

Devices  should  be  classified.  Supervisors  may  be  greatly 
aided  in  their  thinking  about  devices,  and  especially  in  mak- 
ing clear  distinctions  between  principles  of  method  and  de- 
vices, and  between  principles  of  technique  and  devices,  by 
working  out  definite  classifications  of  all  devices.  Any 
classification  of  devices  must  be  more  or  less  arbitrary.  If, 
however,  the  definition  of  device  that  was  given  in  a  former 
part  of  this  discussion  is  adhered  to,  then  the  main  idea  that 
should  dominate  in  classifying  devices  is  that  of  inclusive- 
ness.  That  is  to  say,  every  type  of  means  that  may  be  em- 
ployed in  the  work  of  a  supervisor  should  be  included  in  an 
adequate  scheme  of  classification. 

The  following  scheme  of  classification  is  intended  to  sug- 
gest the  various  types  of  devices  that  may  be  helpful  in  this 
field: 

I.  General  devices.  A  general  device  is  one  that  constitutes 
a  part  of  any  well-equipped  school,  and  one  that  may  be  used 
by  many  people  for  a  variety  of  services.  General  devices 
are  of  two  kinds : 

a.  Material.  A  bulletin  board  is  a  general  device  of  the 
material  type.  A  printed  sheet  of  general  instructions 
to  teachers  is  a  general  device  of  the  material  sort.  A 
material  device,  then,  is  a  device  which  renders  its  serv- 
ice by  virtue  of  its  material  form  of  existence. 
6.  Intellectual.  An  intellectual  device  is  one  that  renders  its 


110  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

service  by  virtue  of  its  intellectual  form  of  existence. 
A  discussion,  a  lecture,  and  a  series  of  questions  are 
intellectual  devices. 

c.  Material  and  intellectual.  A  device  may  be  both  materia' 
and  intellectual.  For  example,  the  supervisor  may  give 
the  teacher  a  list  of  questions  that  the  teacher  must  an- 
swer in  working  out  a  lesson  plan,  or  a  list  to  be  used  in 
dealing  with  problems  of  discipline.  In  such  cases  the 
material  device  is  employed  to  make  the  intellectual  de- 
vice available.  A  clear  distinction  should  be  drawn  be- 
tween such  cases  as  these  and  the  printed  sheet  of  general 
instructions.  The  material  device  in  the  printed  sheet 
of  instructions  is  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  subject- 
matter.  When  the  teacher  reads  this  subject-matter  he 
has  received  what  the  device  was  used  to  accomplish. 
This  is  not  the  case  in  the  list  of  printed  questions  given 
to  the  teacher  in  reference  to  the  lesson  plan.  In  this 
case  the  material  device  presents  a  form  of  subject- 
matter  that  is  a  further  device  for  assisting  the  teacher 
in  acquiring  the  ultimate  form  of  subject-matter  that  the 
supervisor  wishes  to  have  mastered.  That  is  to  say,  the 
form  of  the  questions  is  not  the  goal  of  learning,  but  a 
device  to  stimulate  learning.  Clearness  of  thinking  on 
this  point  will  prevent  the  intellectual  device  from  be- 
coming the  center  of  the  supervisor's  attention  instead 
of  simply  a  means  of  centering  the  teacher's  attention 
upon  the  real  goal  of  learning. 

2.  Special  devices.  A  special  device  is  one  that  has  been 
invented  for  use  in  a  particular  situation,  or  for  use  in  con- 
nection with  a  particular  subject,  or  some  particular  phase  of 
a  subject.  Special  devices  are  also  of  two  kinds: 

a.  Material.  A  series  of  graphs  showing  the  distribution  of 
grades  of  the  pupils  in  the  particular  subject  or  subjects 
for  former  years  would  be  a  special  device  of  the  material 
type.  The  point  that  was  made  in  the  discussion  of 
general  devices  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  making  this 
classification.  The  material  form  of  this  graph  is  for  the 
purpose  of  presenting  definite  subject-matter  that  is  the 
goal  of  instruction,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  making  an 
intellectual  device  available. 
6.  Intellectual.  A  demonstration  lecture  on  the  art  of  ques- 


THE  SELECTION  OF  DEVICES  111 

tioning  in  history  would  be  a  particular  or  special  intel- 
lectual device.  Special  forms  of  questions  that  are 
adapted  to  stimulate  certain  types  of  teachers  to  an 
appreciation  of  their  needs  is  a  special  intellectual  device. 
Every  supervisor  should  make  a  careful  study  of  such 
devices  and  be  resourceful  in  inventing  them. 
t.  Material  and  intellectual.  The  special  device  that  is  both 
material  and  intellectual  possesses  the  same  character- 
istics that  were  set  forth  in  the  discussion  of  the  general 
device  of  this  same  type;  that  is,  its  material  form  is 
employed  to  make  its  intellectual  form  available.  A 
printed  list  of  questions  that  are  adapted  to  making 
teachers  of  a  certain  type  realize  their  weakness  would 
be  a  good  example  of  a  special  device  of  the  material  and 
intellectual  type. 

Chapter  summary.  The  principles  involved  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  devices  of  supervision  include  the  following  char- 
acteristics: devices  should  be  economical,  effective,  usable, 
not  multiplied  needlessly,  not  too  meager,  logically  related 
to  the  ends  they  are  to  further,  not  an  end  in  themselves, 
and  classified  according  to  well-defined  distinctions.  Su- 
pervisors and  teachers  should  study  these  principles  thor- 
oughly, and  the  selection  of  all  devices  should  be  made  in 
keeping  with  the  bearing  these  principles  have  upon  the 
goals  to  be  attained  through  the  use  of  proper  adequate 
devices. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Criticize  the  list  of  "General  Instructions  to  Senior  Teachers,"  given 
at  the  beginning  of  the  chapter,  as  to  organization,  completeness, 
or  excessiveness  of  details,  etc. 

2.  Make  an  estimate  of  the  amount  of  time  actually  saved  for  the 
administrative  officer  by  the  use  of  the  printed  instructions,  instead 
of  giving  the  same  instructions  orally  to  a  group  of  thirty  teachers. 
Estimate  the  additional  time  saved  for  ten  supervisors,  who  would 
necessarily  have  to  supplement  and  repeat  the  oral  instructions  given 
by  the  administrator. 

8.  Give  an  illustration  of  a  device  that,  otherwise  good,  would  involve 
such  expensive  materials  or  other  expense  that  it  should  not  be  used. 


DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

4.  Give  an  illustration  of  a  device  that  would  be  valuable  just  for  the 
immediate  results  it  would  secure. 

5.  Give  an  illustration  of  a  device  that  would  be  valuable  chiefly  for  the 
ultimate  results  it  would  secure. 

6.  Give  three  or  four  devices  that  show  marked  differences  in  usability 
as  to  frequency,  in  different  subjects,  and  accessibility. 

7.  Give  ten  examples,  from  your  experience,  of  the  employment  of  too 
many  devices. 

8.  Give  an  example,  from  experience,  in  which  too  few  devices  were  used. 

9.  Give  three  illustrations  of  logical  devices. 

10.  Give  three  illustrations  of  illogical  devices. 

11.  Give  two  examples,  from  experience,  of  devices  that  were  made  ends 
instead  of  means. 

12.  Criticize  the  classification  of  devices  given  in  the  chapter  as  to  help- 
fulness, consistency  of  organization,  completeness  or  excessiveness  of 
details,  etc. 


CHAPTER  IX 

DEVICES  THAT  ILLUSTRATE  PRINCIPLE  ONE  OF 
METHOD 

THE  devices  that  are  herein  given  have  been  used  by  the 
writer  and  supervisors  working  under  his  direction  and 
found  valuable  as  measured  by  the  principles  involved  in 
the  selection  of  devices,  as  just  stated,  and  as  measured  by 
the  extent  to  which  they  further  the  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  method  previously  stated  as  underlying  the  science 
and  art  of  supervision.  The  primary  point  of  departure  in 
working  out  the  problems  of  selecting  devices  is  the  princi- 
ple of  method  that  is  to  be  applied.  The  secondary  point 
of  attack  upon  the  problem  is  the  set  of  principles  under- 
lying the  selection  of  devices.  The  writer  has  already  indi- 
cated how  the  application  of  this  set  of  principles  may  be 
employed  as  a  criterion  for  determining  the  selection  of  ade- 
quate devices.  Therefore,  in  this  discussion  and  description 
of  devices,  only  the  primary  point  of  attack  will  be  raised. 
The  reader  will  raise  the  secondary  point  of  attack  and  pass 
judgment  as  to  how  far  the  devices  described  measure  up  to 
the  criteria  set  forth  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

The  problem.  The  problem  here  is  to  invent  devices  that 
will  aid  the  teacher  and  supervisor  in  understanding  the 
same  facts  and  holding  the  same  points  of  view  concerning 
the  educational  situation  in  which  the  cooperative  teaching 
is  to  be  carried  on.  The  educational  situation  involves  the 
school,  the  pupils,  the  course  of  study,  the  science  of  method 
of  teaching,  management  of  the  teaching  situation,  judging 
the  results  of  teaching,  and  the  purpose  of  cooperative  teach- 
ing. The  goal  may  be  stated  in  simple  form  as  follows:  To 
give  teachers  and  supervisors  common  understanding  and 


114  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

points  of  view  concerning  the  educational  situations  in 
which  they  work  together. 

Facts  as  to  educational  situations.  The  first  fact  that  is 
perfectly  obvious  is  that  the  teacher  and  supervisor  must 
canvass  the  facts  that  each  knows  about  the  different  as- 
pects of  the  educational  situations  that  confront  them,  and 
come  to  an  agreement  as  to  the  essential  facts  that  shall  be 
accepted  as  valid.  These  facts  can  then  be  held  in  mind  and 
referred  to  as  a  basis  for  departure  in  the  solution  of  teach- 
ing and  management  problems.  The  most  reliable  means 
of  getting  a  comprehensive  body  of  facts  together  is  to  set 
them  down  in  printed  form.  Since  the  supervisor  is  to  be 
the  leader  hi  the  process  of  cooperative  teaching,  the  super- 
visor should  commit  his  knowledge  and  points  of  view  of  the 
educational  situation  to  printed  form,  so  that  it  may  be  used 
as  a  ready  means  of  getting  the  whole  body  of  data  before 
the  mind  of  the  teacher.  Nothing  clarifies  one's  thinking 
more  effectively  than  the  committing  of  one's  ideas  to  defi- 
nite and  permanent  language  forms. 

For  example,  the  supervisor  may  have  the  psychological 
principles  of  the  psychology  of  childhood  and  of  adolescence 
fairly  well  in  mind.  The  teacher  may  also  have  these  prin- 
ciples quite  well  in  mind,  as  a  body  of  psychological  facts. 
The  truth  is,  however,  that  these  facts  of  psychology  will 
have  very  little  influence  upon  the  teaching  and  manage- 
ment performance  unless  they  are  translated  into  definite, 
detailed  items  of  application,  and  illustrated  by  cases  of 
actual  behavior  of  school  pupils. 

A  second  fact  that  is  quite  as  obvious  is  that  when  one  has 
committed  his  point  of  view  to  a  permanent  form,  he  has  an 
anchor  that  keeps  him  from  drifting  about  when  the  peda- 
gogical stream  becomes  turbulent  and  muddy.  One  forgets 
what  he  has  said  and  thought  and  done  if  he  has  no  witness 
whose  evidence  is  unimpeachable  to  put  the  record  before 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  115 

him.  The  supervisor  cannot  make  the  mistake  of  giving  the 
teacher  one  point  of  view  to-day  and  a  radically  different  one 
to-morrow  if  he  has  committed  his  point  of  view  to  printed 
form,  and  if  the  teacher  has  agreed  with  the  supervisor  upot 
that  point  of  view.  This  printed  form  also  serves  as  an  an- 
chor for  the  thinking  of  the  teacher,  once  the  teacher  has 
agreed  to  its  validity.  Then  the  teacher  cannot  plead  ig- 
norance as  an  excuse  for  the  things  that  he  does,  and  he  can- 
not attempt  to  justify  his  procedure  on  the  validity  of  a 
point  of  view  different  from  the  one  upon  which  they  had 
come  to  a  satisfactory  agreement. 

Value  of  printed  forms.  The  first  suggestion,  then,  is 
that  the  supervisor  shall  put  printed  material,  concerning 
the  aspects  of  the  educational  situation  upon  which  he 
should  come  to  common  understanding  and  agreement  with 
his  teachers,  into  the  hands  of  the  teachers  at  the  very  be- 
ginning of  their  cooperative  undertaking.  The  second  sug- 
gestion is  that  the  supervisor  will  not  take  for  granted  that 
the  mere  reading  of  this  printed  material  will  bring  the 
teacher  into  harmony  with  his  own  thinking,  but  that  he 
should  go  over  this  material  in  personal  conference  after  the 
teacher  has  studied  it  thoroughly.  The  teacher  should  be 
held  responsible  to  accept  or  to  object  to  the  various  details 
of  the  material,  and  to  give  valid  grounds  for  accepting  or 
rejecting  each  item.  And,  finally,  a  definite  and  mutually 
satisfactory  understanding  should  be  reached  before  the 
first  cooperative  class  recitation  is  held.  Then  teacher  and 
supervisor  should  get  into  the  habit  of  coming  back  to  defi- 
nite data  upon  which  they  have  agreed  as  the  point  of  de- 
parture in  interpreting  and  meeting  the  actual  conditions 
and  circumstances  of  the  schoolroom. 

The  suggestive  printed  material  that  supervisors  might 
use  as  the  device  for  getting  the  data  concerning  the  school, 
the  pupils,  general  principles  of  method,  principles  underly- 


116  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

ing  the  selection  of  devices  for  classroom  instruction,  prin- 
ciples of  technique,  and  a  statement  of  the  relations  that 
might  well  exist  between  teacher  and  supervisor  in  the  proc- 
ess of  cooperative  teaching,  has  already  been  given  hi  suffi- 
cient detail  to  render  the  repetition  of  the  data  unnecessary. 
The  devices,  then,  that  have  proven  most  adequate  in  ap- 
plying the  first  principle  of  method  are:  definite  detailed 
printed  data  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher,  and  per- 
sonal conferences,  either  group  or  individual,  or  both,  until 
the  desired  agreement  is  reached. 

Section  summary.  The  best  means  for  enabling  one  to 
know  what  he  really  thinks  and  believes  is  to  set  one's  ideas 
down  in  printed  form.  The  supervisor  and  the  teacher  can 
best  come  to  an  understanding  and  common  agreement  upon 
their  mutual  educational  problems  by  committing  their 
ideas  and  beliefs  to  printed  form,  and  then  conferring  upon 
them  until  agreement  is  reached.  The  things  upon  which 
they  agree  should  be  committed  to  printed  form  and  held  by 
each  as  the  guide  to  common  practice. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  ten  concrete  cases  of  actual  behavior  of  pupils  that 
exhibit  principles  of  child  psychology  which  teacher  and  supervisor 
should  understand  in  common. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  ten  concrete  cases  of  actual  behavior  of  pupils  which 
exhibit  principles  of  adolescent  psychology  that  teacher  and  supervisor 
should  understand  in  common. 

3.  Give  two  examples,  from  experience,  in  which  failure  of  teacher  and 
supervisor  to  see  the  same  principles  of  child  psychology  involved  led 
to  friction  and  inefficient  handling  of  the  cases. 

4.  Give  two  examples,  from  experience,  in  which  failure  of  teacher  and 
supervisor  to  see  the  same  principles  of  adolescent  psychology  involved 
led  to  friction  and  inefficient  handling  of  the  cases. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  instructions  that  you  think  would  be  helpful  to  a  teacher 
in  handling  a  particular  group  of  pupils  on  the  first  day  he  is  placed 
in  charge. 

6.  Select  some  teaching  problem  and  commit  to  written  form  your  views 
concerning  it.     Note  the  effect  that  the  procedure  has  upon  rejection 
of  first  ideas  and  satisfactoriness  of  final  selection  of  ideas. 


CHAPTER  X 

DEVICES  THAT  ILLUSTRATE  THE  REMAINING 
PRINCIPLES  OF  METHOD 

I.  THE  SELECTION  AND  ORGANIZATION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 

PRACTICALLY  all  the  devices  that  are  now  to  be  given 
further  the  remaining  principles  of  method,  hi  varying  de- 
grees; hence  they  will  be  given  without  attempting  to  iden- 
tify them  specifically  with  the  principle  or  principles  that 
they  may  seem  to  further  most  adequately.  To  attempt  to 
do  so  would  entail  a  great  deal  of  repetition  of  discussion 
without  materially  increasing  the  value  of  the  suggestions. 
The  reader  will  be  able  to  place  the  devices  in  their  proper 
relations  to  the  principles  of  method  that  they  further.  The 
connections  of  the  devices  suggested  with  the  last  seven 
activities  that  the  supervisor  should  carry  on  are  obvious 
enough  to  make  a  statement  in  each  case  unnecessary. 

1.  The  courses  and  instruction 

Subject-matter  in  permanent  form.  The  selection  and 
organization  of  subject-matter  should  be  worked  out  in  per- 
manent printed  form.  The  supervisor  should  work  out  a 
comprehensive,  detailed  statement  for  each  course  that  he 
supervises.  The  complete  course  should  be  placed  in  the 
hands  of  each  teacher,  and  each  teacher  should  be  held  re- 
sponsible for  knowing  the  relation  that  the  part  of  the  course 
he  happens  to  teach  bears  to  the  whole  course.  A  complete 
statement  of  a  course  should  include  the  items  discussed 
below. 

Purpose  for  which  the  subject  was  organized.  The 
teacher  should  know  definitely  the  conventional  significance 


118  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

that  attaches  to  the  subject-matter  he  is  attempting  to 
teach.  This  should  have  been  and  probably  has  been  learned 
in  the  special  course  in  method  of  teaching,  but  the  repeated 
coming-back  to  the  statement  will  be  of  great  value  in  keep- 
ing the  ultimate  end  of  the  learning  of  the  subject  clearly 
in  mind,  and  will  enable  the  teacher  to  keep  a  proper  balance 
between  the  conventional  purpose  and  the  immediate  pur- 
pose for  which  the  subject  is  being  taught. 

Purpose  for  which  the  subject  is  being  taught.  This 
statement  requires  the  greatest  care  and  most  thorough  con- 
sideration. After  one  has  got  the  conventional  significance 
of  a  subject  hi  mind  as  a  science,  and  has  also  in  mind  the 
psychological  needs  of  the  child,  or  adolescent,  then  he  is 
ready  to  decide  on  what  grounds  any  particular  subject 
should  be  taught  to  any  certain  group  of  children,  in  either 
the  elementary  or  secondary  school. 

He  can  decide  what  phases  of  the  science  as  a  whole,  and 
what  degree  of  complexity  of  these  phases  should  be  or  can 
be  taught  to  advantage  to  the  particular  group  of  children. 
The  immediate  purpose,  then,  involves  a  definite  stage  of 
progress  toward  a  mastery  of  the  conventional  significance 
of  the  subject,  and  a  realization  of  the  psychological  needs 
of  the  pupil  through  the  proper  stimulation  and  develop- 
ment of  his  normal  tendencies  and  capabilities.  The  state- 
ment of  immediate  aim  or  purpose  for  teaching  the  subject 
to  the  particular  group  of  pupils  has  a  great  influence  upon 
the  daily  work  of  the  teacher.  This  part  of  the  statement 
of  the  course  of  study  should,  therefore,  be  made  very  clear 
and  explicit.  It  should  be  clear  enough  and  explicit  enough 
to  show  what  the  particular  subject  will  do  that  no  other 
subject  will  do  toward  the  education  of  the  pupil. 

Changes  going  on  hi  the  subject.  The  accumulation  of 
human  knowledge  has  become  so  great  that  many  modifica- 
tions and  changes  are  going  on  hi  most  subjects  to  meet 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  11Q 

changing  social  and  psychological  needs  of  pupils.  Changes 
are  also  necessary  in  many  subjects  for  the  purpose  of  solv- 
ing pedagogical  and  administrative  difficulties.  The  state- 
ment of  the  course  should  make  clear  whatever  changes  are 
going  on  in  the  subject  as  a  part  of  the  elementary-  or  sec- 
ondary-school curriculum,  and  why  these  changes  are  taking 
place. 

Define  the  unit  of  credit  in  the  subject.  The  outline  of 
work  for  each  period  of  four,  six,  nine,  or  twelve  weeks  of  the 
course  as  suggested  below  define  the  unit  of  the  course  to 
some  extent.  A  more  definite  detailed  statement,  however, 
will  be  of  advantage  in  determining  the  problem  of  granting 
a  certain  amount  of  credit  for  work  completed.  A  thorough 
consideration  of  the  unit  of  credit,  or  half-unit  of  credit  in 
any  subject,  involves  a  number  of  items.  These  items  are 
as  follows: 

1.  The  range  or  scope  of  subject-matter  that  should  be  cov- 
ered.   Take  a  course  in  seventh-grade  arithmetic,  for  exam- 
ple.   The  problem  of  scope  determines  what  topics  will  be 
included  in  the  course.     These  topics  may  be  percentage, 
applications  of  percentage,  mensuration,  etc.     There  may 
be  a  large  number  or  relatively  small  number  of  topics  in- 
cluded in  the  unit.     Take  elementary  algebra  for  another 
example.     The  topics  may  be  fractions,  factoring,  simple 
equations,  etc.    There  is  a  tendency  at  present  to  cut  down 
the  number  of  topics  in  the  algebra  course.     Whatever  the 
number  may  be  is  determined  by  the  solution  of  the  problem 
of  scope  of  subject-matter  of  the  unit. 

2.  The  quantity  of  both  content  and  formal  subject-matter  of 
the  course.     The  relative  amount  of  each  type  of  subject- 
matter  is  highly  important.     Most  courses  tend  to  over- 
crowd the  content  side  of  subject-matter.    A  definite  state- 
ment of  the  approximate  amount  of  formal  material  that 
should  accompany  a  certain  body  of  content  matter  will  be 


120  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

of  advantage  in  working  out  the  outline  suggested  under  13 
below.  The  tendency  to-day  is  to  cut  down  the  content 
subject-matter  by  restricting  it  to  what  is  considered  as  ab- 
solutely essential  and  practical,  and  greatly  to  increase  the 
amount  of  drill  or  formal  material  that  will  make  possible  a 
thorough  mastery  of  the  application  of  the  content  that  is 
presented.  Every  elementary-  and  secondary -school  course 
is  undergoing  careful,  discriminating  criticism,  and  super- 
visors should  be  able  to  make  intelligent,  accurate  state- 
ments concerning  the  courses  under  their  charge. 

3.  The  body  of  essential  facts  and  principles  that  should  be 
thoroughly  mastered  and  remembered.  Some  phases  of  con- 
tent subject-matter  are  necessary  in  developing  the  usable 
facts  and  principles.  They  are  not  necessary,  however, 
when  it  comes  to  the  application  of  the  fundamental  content 
material  of  a  course.  Therefore  a  statement  of  the  scope 
and  quantity  of  content  subject-matter  does  not  give  the 
teacher  a  clear  criterion  and  definite  guide  as  to  what  should 
be  learned  temporarily  and  what  should  be  learned  perma- 
nently. The  importance  of  making  this  distinction  is  obvi- 
ous, and  the  discussion  of  the  unit  of  credit  should  include 
such  a  statement. 

4-  The  body  of  habits  that  should  result  from  the  study  of  the 
course.  The  statement  of  habit  should  be  specific  and  de- 
tailed. One  of  the  weaknesses  of  educational  thinking  is  the 
tendency  to  keep  in  the  realm  of  broad  generalities.  For 
example,  it  is  not  enough  to  say  that  the  study  of  a  subject 
should  develop  accuracy.  The  important  point  is  to  de- 
termine the  specific  form  in  which  accuracy  should  be  mani- 
fested. It  may  be  accuracy  in  adding  numbers,  making  let- 
ters, describing  objects,  interpreting  language,  judging 
appropriateness  of  conduct,  etc.  The  statement  should  in- 
dicate those  forms  of  accuracy  that  the  study  of  the  subject 
is  intended  to  develop.  The  more  detailed  the  statements 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  121 

are  in  regard  to  the  habits  that  are  to  be  formed  through  the 
study  of  any  particular  subject,  the  better  and  more  helpful 
the  statements  will  be.  They  will  not  only  be  more  helpful 
to  the  teachers,  but  also  more  helpful  to  the  supervisors 
themselves. 

5.  The  prerequisites  to  the  course,  in  the  same  subject  and  in 
other  subjects.    The  statement  of  prerequisites  should  show, 
first,  those  subjects  that  are  essential  for  one  to  have  studied 
in  order  to  profit  by  the  study  of  the  particular  course.     In 
addition  to  this,  the  statement  should  point  out  the  helpful- 
ness of  other  courses  that  are  not  required  or  considered  as 
absolutely  necessary  to  precede  the  particular  subject.    The 
statement  should  do  more  than  merely  enumerate  the  pre- 
requisite subjects.    It  should  point  out  the  specific  correla- 
tions that  exist  between  these  various  bodies  of  related  ma- 
terial. 

6.  The  courses  in  the  same  subjects  to  which  the  particular 
course  leads.    One  of  the  things  that  a  pupil  needs  to  know 
before  he  takes  up  the  study  of  a  specific  course  is  whether 
the  outcome  of  the  study  is  largely  within  the  course  itself, 
or  whether,  in  addition  to  certain  immediate  outcomes, 
there  is  the  definite  opening-up  of  opportunities  that  would 
be  closed  to  one  without  the  study  of  this  particular  subject. 
The  statement  of  the  lines  of  study  or  of  occupations  to 
which  a  particular  subject  leads  should  not  be  a  mere  enu- 
meration of  subjects  or  occupations,  but  it  should  point  out 
the  definite,  direct  connections  that  exist  between  the  sub- 
ject and  the  opportunities  to  which  it  leads.    Every  subject 
should  have  some  educational  or  vocational  appeal,  and  the 
definition  of  a  unit  in  the  subject  should  state  the  outlooks 
that  will  appeal  to  pupils. 

7.  The  shortest  periods  into  which  the  subject  can  be  organ- 
ized.   One  of  the  problems  that  puzzles  teachers  is  the  ques- 
tion of  recording  credit  for  any  amount  of  work  less  than  the 


122  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

unit  or  half -unit  according  to  the  length  of  the  course  offered 
in  the  subject.  Most  schools  will  not  record  credit  on  a  per- 
manent record  for  less  than  a  half -unit  of  work.  Some 
schools  organize  their  courses  so  that  permanent  credit  will 
be  recorded  for  periods  of  six  weeks  where  they  are  on  the 
quarter  system,  and  others  for  nine  weeks  where  they  are 
on  the  semester  system.  Still  other  schools  record  perma- 
nent credit  for  six  weeks  of  work  even  though  the  school  is 
on  the  semester  system.  In  all  of  these  schools,  however,  the 
course  must  be  completed  before  any  of  it  can  be  counted 
toward  graduation.  The  length  of  period  for  which  credit 
may  be  recorded  and  carried  forward  for  the  student  must 
be  decided  by  the  organization  of  the  subject-matter.  If 
the  subject  is  of  such  a  nature  that  a  complete  division  or 
definitely  organized  part  of  the  material  can  be  completed 
during  each  six  weeks  of  the  time  during  which  the  course  is 
offered,  then  it  is  not  only  feasible,  but  fair  and  just  to  both 
the  pupil  and  the  school  as  well,  that  permanent  credit 
should  be  recorded  for  the  work  completed. 

It  is  perfectly  feasible  in  some  subjects  for  the  pupil  to 
fail,  or  miss  the  first  six  or  nine  weeks,  as  the  case  may  be, 
and  go  on  successfully  with  the  next  six  or  nine  weeks.  He 
may  even  miss  or  lose  out  on  the  next  six  or  nine  weeks  and 
go  on  successfully  with  the  next  blocks  of  the  subject.  In 
the  end  he  might  have,  let  us  say,  credit  for  the  second  and 
fourth  periods  of  nine  weeks  and  be  lacking  in  the  work  of 
the  first  and  third  nine-week  periods.  These  two  blocks  of 
work  could  be  made  up  without  the  pupil  taking  the  entire 
course  over  again.  Whatever  the  possibilities  are  of  organ- 
izing the  subject  so  that  definite  parts  of  the  unit  may  be 
completed  and  permanent  credit  given  before  the  comple- 
tion of  the  entire  unit,  the  supervisor  should  know  and 
should  commit  some  definite  scheme  of  organization  of  the 
subject-matter  to  permanent  form  for  this  purpose.  The 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  123 

organization  of  subject-matter  into  definite  blocks  of  unified 
material  for  periods  of  six,  nine,  or  twelve  weeks  will  have  an 
excellent  effect  upon  the  teaching  of  the  subject.  Most  sub- 
jects are  less  effectively  taught  than  they  should  be  on  ac- 
count of  lack  of  definiteness. 

8.  The  length  and  number  of  class  periods.     By  this  is 
meant  the  length  and  number  of  class  periods  per  week  for 
which  any  fractional  credit  toward  the  unit  and  for  which 
whole-unit  credit  should  be  given.    This  problem  should  be 
determined  by  the  size  of  the  class,  the  experience  and  skill 
of  the  teacher,  the  amount  of  personal  supervision  given  to 
each  pupil's  work,  and  the  number  of  subjects  the  pupils  are 
taking.    A  large  class  taught  by  a  skilled  teacher  of  consid- 
erable experience  can  cover  the  subject-matter  of  a  course 
thoroughly  and  yet  more  rapidly  than  a  smaller  class  taught 
by  a  less  skillful  teacher.    If  the  pupils  each  receive  a  great 
amount  of  individual  attention  from  the  teacher,  regardless, 
of  the  size  of  the  class,  then  more  work  can  be  thoroughly 
covered  in  a  shorter  period  of  time  than  would  ordinarily  be 
required  to  do  the  same  amount  of  work.     If  pupils  are 
carrying  only  a  normal  amount  of  work,  or  if  they  are  car- 
rying less  than  the  normal  load,  they  can  complete  work  in 
a  shorter  period  of  time  and  yet  do  it  thoroughly.     All  of 
these  considerations  should  be  taken  into  account  and  defi- 
nite analyses  of  actual  situations  should  be  employed  in  de- 
termining the  amount  of  actual  class  time  that,  under  the 
varying  conditions,  will  insure  a  successful  completion  of  the 
work. 

9.  The  amount  of  time  required  in  study  preparation  outside 
of  class.    This  is  not  a  problem  that  can  be  settled  by  tradi- 
tions.    It  must  be  determined  by  a  careful  consideration  of 
actual  practices  and  conditions.     The  amount  of  time  will 
vary  with  different  pupils  and  with  different  subjects.    The 
most  important  point  is  the  development  of  the  habit  on  the 


124  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

part  of  the  pupil  of  making  a  definite  preparation  of  the  les- 
son assigned.  If  the  beginning  lessons  only  require  fifteen 
minutes  of  intensive  study,  and  the  pupil  gets  the  habit  of 
studying  intensively  and  mastering  the  lesson,  then  a 
twenty-minute  lesson,  and  a  twenty-five-minute  lesson,  and 
a  thirty-minute  lesson,  etc.,  may  be  assigned  and  the  pupil 
will  continue  to  prepare  his  lessons  thoroughly,  just  because 
he  has  got  into  the  habit  of  getting  the  assignment.  Ulti- 
mately in  this  way  a  reasonable  standard  of  time  require- 
ment for  outside  preparation  will  be  established  in  the  habits 
of  the  pupil.  The  reasonableness  of  this  final  standard  of 
time  should  be  determined  by  the  maturity  of  the  pupils, 
the  nature  of  the  subject-matter,  and  the  length  of  the  reci- 
tation period.  The  longer  the  recitation  period,  the  less 
time  required  outside  in  the  study  of  the  lesson,  and  vice 
versa,  relatively  speaking.  The  relation  between  the  length 
of  the  recitation  and  the  length  of  outside  study  should  be 
definitely  worked  out  by  each  supervisor  and  stated  in  the 
form  of  a  workable  standard. 

10.  The  amount  of  laboratory  and  recitation  time  in  subjects 
requiring  laboratory  work.  The  number  and  length  of  recita- 
tion periods  per  week,  and  the  number  and  length  of  labora- 
tory periods  per  week,  should  be  determined  by  the  size  of 
the  class,  the  experience  and  skill  of  the  teacher,  the  amount 
of  individual  attention  given  each  pupil,  and  the  number  of 
subjects  the  pupils  are  taking.  The  amount  of  laboratory 
time  in  relation  to  recitation  time  is  usually  two  double  peri- 
ods of  laboratory  to  three  single  periods  of  recitation.  The 
relation,  however,  is  traditional,  and  in  many  cases  results 
in  the  isolation  of  laboratory  experiments  from  the  class  dis- 
cussions. The  relation  between  recitation  and  laboratory 
should  be  that  of  complementary  devices,  each  of  which 
furthers  the  study  of  the  subject.  Recitation  and  book 
study  may  at  times  continue  for  several  days  in  order  to  get 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  125 

a  good  grasp  of  certain  laws  and  principles  from  mere  mental 
analysis.  Then  a  week  or  two  of  intensive  laboratory  work 
might  well  follow  as  the  means  of  mastering  the  applications 
of  laws  and  principles.  However  the  relation  between  the 
two  types  of  study  devices  works  out,  it  should  be  on  the 
basis  of  definite,  consistent  progress  in  the  subject,  and  not 
on  the  traditional  basis  of  so  many  times  per  week  to  use  the 
one  device  and  so  many  to  use  the  other.  Even  the  idea 
that  laboratory  work  should  be  for  double  periods  and  reci- 
tations for  single  periods  is  traditional.  Proper  method, 
adequate  devices,  and  efficient  technique  may  change  the 
whole  idea  of  the  amount  of  time  needed  for  thorough  labo- 
ratory work. 

a.  Experiments  to  be  performed  by  the  pupil.     This  is 
merely  another  item  of  this  same  problem.    The  number  of 
laboratory  experiments  that  should  be  required  of  each  pu- 
pil or  group  of  pupils  must  be  considered.     The  number  of 
such  experiments  in  science  courses  has  been  determined  al- 
most wholly  upon  the  basis  of  the  number  of  double  labora- 
tory periods  there  would  be  during  the  year.     The  experi- 
ments should  bear  some  direct  relation  to  the  realization  of 
the  purposes  for  which  the  courses  are  being  taught.    They 
should  further  the  mastery  of  truths  and  comprehension  of 
principles,  and  they  should  promote  the  development  of 
definite  habits.      The  number,  therefore,  may  vary  with 
different  classes  and  with  different  individuals.    The  defini- 
tion of  the  unit  of  the  course  should  give  the  types  of  experi- 
ments that  should  be  performed  and  range  in  number  that 
would  meet  the  varying  conditions. 

b.  Experiments  to  be  performed  by  the  teacher.    This  is  still 
another  item  of  this  same  problem.     Here,  again,  the  num- 
ber to  be  demonstrated  by  the  teacher  should  be  determined 
by  the  purposes  of  the  course.     The  demonstrations  should 
be  directly  related  to  the  mastering  of  truths  and  compre- 


120  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

hension  of  principles  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  They  should 
especially  relate  to  those  phases  of  content  material  that  are 
to  be  learned  only  temporarily  as  a  means  of  developing  a 
thorough  mastery  of  those  phases  of  content  that  are  to  be 
learned  permanently.  Demonstration  experiments  should 
relate  to  the  problem  of  supplementing  and  enriching  the 
fundamental  body  of  content  material.  The  exact  relations 
that  demonstrations  are  to  bear  to  the  various  phases  and 
aspects  of  the  courses  taught  under  his  supervision  is  one  of 
the  important  problems  for  the  supervisor  to  solve.  He 
should  work  out  a  definite,  detailed  statement  of  these  rela- 
tions and  the  types  and  relative  number  of  demonstrations 
that  he  thinks  should  be  employed  in  the  teaching  of  the 
course. 

11.  The  doss  of  pupils  for  whom  the  course  is  pitched. 
This  is  usually  not  a  difficult  problem  for  supervisors  of 
work  in  elementary  schools.    There  are  cases,  however,  even 
in  the  elementary  schools,  where  different  grades  and  sec- 
tions of  grades  are  thrown  together  for  music,  drawing,  etc. 
The  same  conditions  prevail  in  such  cases  in  the  elementary 
school  as  are  found  in  secondary  schools  in  the  teaching  of 
elective  courses.     Pupils  of  different  ages  and  of  different 
stages  of  school  progress  are  thrown  together  in  the  same 
course.    The  problem  is,  shall  the  course  be  pitched  to  the 
pupils  of  lowest  stage  of  school  advancement,  or  shall  it  be 
pitched  to  those  of  the  highest  stage  of  school  advance- 
ment?    The  supervisor  should  determine  this  point  and 
indicate  in  the  definition  of  the  unit  the  exact  status  of  the 
course  as  it  is  to  be  taught  with  reference  to  the  maturity 
and  school  progress  of  the  pupils  who  may  be  allowed  to 
take  the  course. 

12.  The  classes  of  pupils  to  whom,  the  course  is  open  for  full 
or  fractional  credit.    This  is  a  much-mooted  question  to-day, 
especially  in  the  secondary  school.    The  question  of  giving 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  127 

full  credit  to  a  senior  for  a  language,  or  a  history  course,  or  a 
science  course  that  ordinarily  is  taken  in  the  freshman  or 
sophomore  year,  has  been  argued  pro  and  con  for  some  time 
and  the  solution  seems  to  be  as  far  away  as  ever.  The  ques- 
tions of  the  class  of  pupils  for  whom  the  course  shall  be  open 
for  full  credit,  and  the  pupils  to  whom  it  shall  be  open  for 
fractional  credit,  are  all  part  of  the  same  problem;  namely, 
the  problem  of  offering  a  course  in  such  a  way  that  it  will 
further  the  education  of  every  class  of  pupils  taking  it,  and 
of  measuring  the  amount  of  development,  brought  about  by 
the  taking  of  the  course,  in  terms  of  units  and  fractional 
units.  The  problem  presents  a  number  of  difficulties,  and 
the  supervisor  is  very  apt  to  pass  them  over  by  simply  fol- 
lowing the  traditions  of  the  school  hi  which  he  works,  or  the 
ruling  of  some  association  that  is  working  in  the  interest  of 
uniformity  of  practice  in  dealing  with  this  problem.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  the  definition  of  the  unit  of  a  course  should 
contain  a  definite  statement  of  this  point,  so  that  teachers 
may  know  the  plan  of  administration  at  the  outset. 

13.  The  items  that  shall  determine  the  pupil's  record  and 
credit  in  the  course.  The  definition  of  the  unit  should  con- 
tain a  statement  as  to  the  relative  amount  of  emphasis  that 
should  be  given  to  the  different  items  that  are  considered  to 
be  the  most  reliable  evidences  of  the  realization  of  the  pur- 
poses for  which  the  course  is  being  taught.  The  degree  of 
emphasis  given  to  these  items  will  vary  with  the  nature  of 
the  subject.  The  number  of  the  items  may  also  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  subject.  In  general,  however, 
these  items  fall  into  four  groups,  as  follows : 

1.  Achievement  in  knowledge  of  subject-matter. 

2.  Faithful,  consistent  effort  in  pursuing  the  study  of  the  subject. 

3.  General  habits  in  technique  of  organization  and  manipulation 
of  subject-matter,  materials,  and  apparatus  that  will  be  help- 
ful in  the  further  study  of  the  same  subject,  or  in  the  study  of 
some  related  subject. 


128  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

4.  Specific  habits  of  study  and  habits  of  attacking  subject- 
matter,  which  show  initiative  and  power  to  analyze  new 
subject-matter  and  new  situations,  and  to  apply  knowledge 
to  the  solution  of  new  problems. 

A  course  that  is  largely  informational  should  place  a  high 
degree  of  emphasis  upon  item  1,  above.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  course  that  is  largely  developmental  should  emphasize 
points  2  and  4.  Some  courses  will  no  doubt  emphasize 
points  1,  3,  and  4  to  about  the  same  degree.  Point  2  is  open 
to  a  good  deal  of  question,  but  it  certainly  deserves  most 
careful  consideration.  This  point  demands  a  decision  upon 
the  negative  results  of  education,  as  well  as  recognition  of 
the  positive  results.  Points  1,  3,  and  4  are  not  usually  satis- 
fied without  point  2  also  being  satisfied.  There  are  cases, 
however,  when  point  1  in  a  course  that  is  very  largely  in- 
formational is  satisfied  without  2  being  satisfactorily  met. 
Then  there  are  the  most  perplexing  cases  of  all,  those  in 
which  point  2  is  satisfied  and  none  of  the  other  points  are 
satisfactorily  met. 

If  education  is  to  help  pupils  find  their  capabilities,  the 
question  of  giving  credit  for  having  discovered  through 
faithful  efforts  the  things  that  one  cannot  do  successfully  is 
pertinent.  Moreover,  many  times  the  individual  who  finds 
he  has  ability  in  a  certain  subject  may  never  use  that  attain- 
ment for  any  special  purpose  in  life.  The  mental  maturity, 
and  the  quality  of  character  that  is  being  developed  in  the 
individual  who  is  learning  the  bitter  lesson  that  no  amount 
of  effort  and  industry  will  enable  him  to  attain  efficiency  in 
a  certain  field  of  subject-matter,  may  be  vastly  more  valua- 
ble to  society  than  the  maturity  and  character  that  develop 
in  the  individual  who  attains  a  high  mark  in  a  subject  with- 
out half  trying.  Why  not  give  credit  toward  graduation, 
then,  to  both  types  of  individuals,  or  rather  for  both  types  of 
results?  The  seeming  negative  outcome  of  education  be- 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  129 

comes  positive  when  viewed  in  relation  to  the  future  of  the 
individual  instead  of  circling  it  round  with  the  immediate 
little  scholastic  circle  of  an  educational  institution.  Teach- 
ers need  guidance  on  this  problem  of  determining  the  final 
reward  of  the  pupil ;  hence  the  supervisor  should  have  a  defi- 
nite solution  of  the  problem  in  reference  to  the  administra- 
tion of  the  courses  under  his  charge,  and  he  should  not  only 
commit  his  solution  to  definite  form  in  defining  the  unit  of 
credit,  but  he  should  also  define  the  crediting  of  the  unit  to 
pupils. 

14.  The  range  of  marks  that  shall  be  used  in  indicating 
credit  in  the  course.    First  of  all  the  standard  mark  should 
be  indicated.     Second,  the  range  of  marks  above  and  below 
the  standard  or  passing  mark  should  be  given.     Third,  the 
method  of  computing  the  final  mark  should  be  explained. 
If,  for  example,  point  1  above  is  to  count  two  thirds  of  the 
final  mark,  and  point  3  and  4  each  one  sixth,  then  it  should 
be  so  stated  and  the  method  of  determining  the  final  mark 
should  be  shown.     If  standard  tests  are  to  be  used  in  de- 
termining the  degree  of  attainment  in  a  subject,  then  these 
tests  should  be  indicated  and  instructions  given  as  to  how 
they  are  to  be  used  in  administering  the  final  outcome  of  the 
course  in  determining  the  credit  that  shall  be  given. 

15.  Quantity  of  material  to  be  covered  in  any  fraction  of  the 
course.     One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  for  beginning 
teachers,  as  well  as  for  teachers  who  are  teaching  a  subject 
for  the  first  time  or  teaching  a  subject  with  which  they  are 
not  very  familiar,  is  the  problem  of  assigning  a  reasonable 
amount  of  subject-matter  for  each  daily  recitation.     This 
definite  problem  of  the  daily  recitation  cannot  well  be  got  at 
without  working  out  the  whole  course  hi  a  definite  way  for 
certain  blocks  of  time,  such  as  the  quantity  of  material  to  be 
covered  in  each  four,  six,  nine,  or  twelve  weeks  of  the  course. 
The  supervisor  should  be  able  to  do  this  much  more  accu- 


180  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

rately  than  the  teacher;  therefore  one  of  the  important  serv- 
ices that  the  supervisor  can  render  to  both  the  teachers  and 
the  pupils  being  taught  is  that  of  placing  a  detailed  organiza- 
tion of  unified  blocks  of  subject-matter  in  the  hands  of  the 
teachers.  The  teachers  will  acquire  accuracy  and  insight 
into  this  phase  of  curriculum-making  from  then*  practice  in 
accomplishing  what  the  course  lays  out  to  be  done.  Granted 
that  the  supervisor  has  made  a  reasonable  allotment  of  sub- 
ject-matter to  each  period  of  time,  then  one  of  the  critical 
tests  of  teaching  efficiency  is  that  of  getting  the  designated 
work  thoroughly  and  satisfactorily  completed.  Finally  the 
teacher  should  be  able  to  organize  the  course  quantitatively 
on  his  own  responsibility  to  meet  a  particular  teaching  situa- 
tion. 

2.  Textbooks  and  their  use 

Instructions  as  to  textbooks.  The  supervisor  should  give 
definite  instructions  concerning  the  weaknesses  and  the  ex- 
cellences of  the  textbooks  that  are  to  be  used  in  the  course. 
Beginning  teachers,  and  teachers  who  are  beginning  the 
teaching  of  a  subject,  are  largely  dependent  upon  textbooks 
in  determining  the  arrangement  of  material  and  the  empha- 
sis that  should  be  given  to  each  phase  of  the  subject-matter. 
Textbooks  are  not  often  organized  as  courses  of  study,  but 
usually  as  compilations  of  subject-matter.  Nearly  every 
text  has  some  weakness  that  must  be  offset  by  the  under- 
standing and  skill  of  the  teacher  in  using  it.  The  supervisor 
can  render  an  important  service  to  the  teachers  by  showing 
them  how  to  bridge  over  the  weaknesses  of  the  texts  so  that 
they  can  be  used  to  best  advantage  as  a  means  of  furthering 
the  purpose  for  which  the  course  is  being  taught.  The  su- 
pervisor should  also  undertake  to  set  up  a  standard  or  crite- 
rion for  determining  the  characteristics  of  a  high-grade  or 
standard  text  for  the  course.  Teachers  are  usually  very 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  131 

much  at  a  loss  when  they  are  called  upon  to  select  text- 
books. 

The  texts  selected,  even  by  State  Textbook  Commissions, 
afford  ample  proof  that  standards  for  judging  the  usability 
of  textbooks  are  badly  needed.  The  fundamental  considera- 
tions that  should  guide  in  setting  up  such  standards  are  as 
follows: 

1.  Is  the  text  organized  in  keeping  with  the  purpose  for  which 
the  course  is  being  taught? 

2.  Is  the  text  adapted  to  the  specific  school  field  in  which  it  is 
to  be  used?    For  example,  is  it  a  strictly  high-school  text,  OP 
has  it  been  compiled  with  a  view  to  filling  both  a  high-school 
and  junior-college  demand?     Too  many  textbooks  have  been 
prepared  for  commercial  purposes;  hence  they  are  not  the 
best  for  any  one  specific  field. 

3.  Is  the  text  organized  as  a  device,  and  as  such  does  it  measure 
up  adequately  to  the  principles  and  criteria  for  determining 
the  selection  of  devices? 

4.  Is  the  text  organized  in  the  form  of  clearly  conceived  problems 
of  method  in  teaching?     If  so,  is  its  organization  psycho- 
logically sound  as  to  the  type  or  form  of  method  problem  that 
is  adapted  to  the  particular  group  of  pupils  that  will  use  the 
text? 

5.  Is  the  text  made  of  the  kind  of  paper  and  is  it  printed  in  the 
kind  of  type  that  enable  it  to  meet  the  sanitary  standards  of 
favorable  visualization?     The  statement  of  the  supervisor 
should  give  a  critical  resume  of  the  weaknesses  and  the  excel- 
lences of  the  textbooks  used,  in  the  light  of  the  above  prin- 
ciples. 

Instructions  to  the  teachers  in  the  use  of  textbooks. 
Textbooks  may  be  used  by  pupils  in  preparation  of  lessons 
as  the  most  economical  agency  that  the  pupils  can  use  in 
securing  valid  material  for  the  study  of  the  particular  sub- 
ject. They  may  also  be  used  as  an  economical  means  of 
getting  definite  data  before  the  class  during  a  recitation. 
The  idea  that  books  should  be  closed  when  pupils  come  to 
class  has  prevailed  so  long  that  books  are  often  closed  when 


132  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

they  should  be  open.  The  recitation  as  an  activity  does  not 
demand  that  books  be  closed  or  open.  The  teacher  must 
learn  to  use  textbooks  to  the  best  advantage  in  furthering 
immediate  ends  of  the  recitation,  and  the  ultimate  ends  for 
which  the  subject  is  being  taught. 

Relative  emphasis  or  importance  of  the  divisions  of  the 
course.  One  way  of  indicating  the  importance  of  one  divi- 
sion as  compared  with  the  importance  of  another  division  is 
the  amount  of  time  that  is  allotted  to  each  of  the  divisions. 
This  criterion,  however,  is  not  an  absolute  one.  A  division 
may  be  of  equal  importance  as  compared  with  another  and 
yet  be  more  difficult  to  master.  Therefore  another  way  to 
designate  the  importance  of  the  divisions  of  subject-matter 
is  to  set  up  a  standard,  or  state  the  degree  to  which  they 
should  be  mastered.  For  example,  in  composition  the  rules 
for  capitalization  of  letters  is  perhaps  of  equal  importance 
with  the  use  of  the  comma.  Both  are  necessary  in  accurate 
written  expression.  The  rules  for  capitalization  can  be 
learned  in  less  time  than  it  takes  to  master  the  rules  for  using 
the  comma.  Therefore  to  designate  twice  as  much  time 
for  mastery  of  the  comma  as  for  mastery  of  capitalization 
gives  a  fair  comprehension  of  the  relative  difficulty  of  each 
of  these  topics,  and  some  idea  of  then*  relative  importance. 
A  statement  of  the  degree  of  accuracy  to  which  each  should 
be  mastered  would  establish  the  conception  of  their  relative 
importance. 

Relative  time  to  presentation  and  drill.  The  supervisor 
should  definitely  indicate  the  relative  amount  of  time  that 
should  be  given  to  the  presentation  and  demonstration  of 
content  subject-matter,  and  the  amount  of  time  that  should 
be  given  to  drill.  This  problem  is  correlated  with  point  4, 
above,  and  goes  into  the  distinction  between  content  ma- 
terial and  formal  drill  material.  One  of  the  weaknesses  of 
modern  education  is  that  of  overcrowding  courses  with  con- 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  133 

tent  subject-matter  and  devoting  too  little  time  upon  the 
practice  material  that  would  render  the  content  material 
thoroughly  usable.  A  knowledge  of  rules  and  principles 
should  be  followed  by  attainment  of  skill  and  accuracy  in 
applying  them.  Pupils  may  learn  clearly  the  meaning  in  a 
recitation  of  a  rule  that  would  require  a  week  of  practice  to 
attain  accuracy  in  its  use.  The  correct  balance  between  the 
time  needed  for  learning  how,  and  the  time  for  attainment  in 
doing  the  thing,  is  one  of  the  critical  problems  involved  hi 
curriculum-making.  The  teacher  must  master  this  prob- 
lem, and  one  of  the  most  economical  ways  for  this  to  be 
done  is  by  f ollowing  a  properly  organized  course  of  subject- 
matter,  and  clearly  recognizing  the  effective  results  that  are 
secured  through  a  proper  balance  between  presentation  of 
content  and  practice  upon  formal  application  of  the  con- 
tent. 

Sources  of  supplementary  material.  The  supervisor 
should  also  indicate  the  amount  and  sources  of  supplemen- 
tary material  that  will  be  used  in  connection  with  the  course. 
The  amount  and  nature  of  the  supplementary  materials  that 
should  be  used  hi  connection  with  any  course  should  be  de- 
termined by  the  usability  of  the  textbooks,  character  of  the 
subject,  and  the  maturity  of  the  pupils.  If  the  textbook  is 
an  excellent  one  and  has  been  compiled  with  a  view  to  fur- 
nishing ample  material  for  the  study  of  the  subject,  then  little 
or  no  supplementary  material  is  necessary.  Mathematics 
and  language  texts  usually  need  considerable  supplementary 
drill  material.  Histories  usually  need  to  be  supplemented. 
Books  in  chemistry,  physics,  and  most  of  the  biological 
sciences  need  relatively  little  supplementing.  The  supple- 
mentary material  in  science  is  largely  laboratory  experi- 
ments. Most  of  the  supplementary  materials  for  the  ele- 
mentary school  are  for  practice  and  drill,  or  for  the  purpose 
of  enabling  the  pupils  to  use  an  acquired  skill  as  a  means  of 


134  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

enjoyment.  Hence  supplementary  readers,  supplementary 
arithmetics  and  story  books  are  needed.  High-school  pu- 
pils should  be  able  to  make  use  of  supplementary  material  to 
advantage  in  pursuing  many  of  their  subjects. 

Notebooks  and  other  necessary  material.  The  kinds  of 
notebooks  and  other  materials  that  will  be  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  course  should  be  made  clear.  Notebooks  for 
the  different  science  courses  have  been  largely  standardized. 
There  is  advantage,  however,  in  selecting  for  particular 
situations,  and  some  notebooks  are  more  convenient  than 
others.  The  supervisor  having  several  classes  in  the  group 
finds  uniformity  of  notebook  and  other  materials  desirable. 
Uniformity  in  quiz  papers  and  all  written  work  makes  for 
economy  of  time  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  and  supervisor. 
Teachers  who  use  such  selected  materials  soon  realize  their 
advantage,  and  recognize  the  validity  of  the  grounds  upon 
which  they  have  been  selected.  The  time  saved  for  the 
teachers,  by  the  supervisor's  indicating  the  materials  to  be 
used,  in  getting  the  teaching  situation  well  in  hand  is  an 
important  consideration. 

Special  assignments  and  reports.  Finally,  the  supervisor 
should  give  specific  directions  as  to  assignments  and  reports 
to  be  given  by  individual  members  of  the  class.  The  nature 
of  special  assignments  to  individual  pupils  should  be  de- 
termined by  the  nature  of  the  subject  and  the  maturity  of 
the  pupils.  Even  elementary-school  pupils  can  employ 
their  reading  skill  to  advantage  in  reading  interesting  sto- 
ries, geography,  and  history  material,  etc.,  and  give  the  rest 
of  the  class  the  results  of  their  reading.  High-school  pupils 
should  do  a  good  deal  of  this  kind  of  individual  work  in  al- 
most every  subject.  A  definite  plan  of  having  such  reports 
given,  and  of  insuring  that  the  class  profits  by  the  reports,  is 
essential.  The  supervisor  should  be  able  to  give  the  teach- 
ers an  efficient  body  of  devices  and  technique  for  doing  this 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  135 

kind  of  work.    The  teacher  then  will  soon  be  able  to  modify 
the  plan  to  suit  varying  conditions. 

Chapter  pyrnimary.  The  selection  and  organization  of 
subject-matter  in  a  course  should  be  worked  out  in  definite 
form.  This  should  show:  The  purpose  for  which  the  subject 
came  into  existence,  and  why  it  is  being  taught;  the  changes 
going  on  in  the  subject;  unit  of  credit  in  the  course,  involv- 
ing content,  outcomes,  prerequisites,  courses  to  which  pre- 
requisite, time  in  length  of  class  periods,  study  preparation, 
and  number  of  weeks,  class  of  students  for  whom  adapted, 
to  whom  open  for  full  and  partial  credit,  and  standards  for 
grading  and  range  of  marks;  quantity  of  material  to  be  cov- 
ered each  four,  six,  etc.,  weeks;  weaknesses  of  textbooks; 
instructions  on  use  of  textbooks ;  relative  importance  of  each 
division  of  the  course;  relative  amount  of  time  given  to  con- 
tent material  and  to  drill;  amount  and  sources  of  supple- 
mentary material;  notebooks  and  other  materials  needed; 
and  directions  on  special  assignments. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Select  two  fundamental  elementary-school  subjects,  and  write  out  a 
statement  of  the  purpose  for  which  each  subject  came  into  existence, 
and  the  purpose  for  which  each  is  now  taught  in  school. 

2.  Select  two  required  high-school  subjects,  and  state  the  purposes  for 
which  they  came  into  existence,  and  the  purposes  for  which  they  are 
now  taught. 

8.  Select  one  fundamental  elementary-school  subject,  and  state  the 
changes  that  are  going  on  in  the  subject,  and  the  reasons  for  the 
changes. 

4.  Select  one  required  high-school  subject,  and  state  the  changes  -that 
are  going  on  in  the  subject,  and  the  reason  for  the  changes. 

5.  Make  a  topical  outline  for  an  up-to-date  sixth-grade  arithmetic  course. 

6.  Make    a   topical   outline    for   an    up-to-date    elementary   algebra 
course. 

7.  Take  one  topic  in  sixth-grade  arithmetic,  and  outline  in  detail  the 
content  material  and  the  formal-drill  material. 

8.  Take  one  topic  in  the  elementary  algebra  course,  and  outline  in  detail 
the  content  material  and  the  drill  material. 


136  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

9.  Make  an  outline  of  the  essential  facts  and  principles  that  should  be 
mastered  in  sixth-grade  arithmetic. 

10.  Make  an  outline  of  the  habits  that  the  sixth-grade  arithmetic  course 
should  develop. 

11.  Make  an  outline  of  the  essential  facts  and  principles  that  should  be 
mastered  in  elementary  algebra. 

12.  Make  an  outline  of  the  habits  that  the  elementary  algebra  course 
should  develop. 

18.  State  definitely  the  prerequisites  of  the  elementary  algebra  course. 

14.  State  definitely  the  courses  to  which  elementary  algebra  is  a  pre- 
requisite. 

15.  Give  reasons  why  credit  should  or  should  not  be  given  for  periods  of 
four,  six,  nine,  twelve,  and  eighteen  weeks  in  sixth-grade  arithmetic; 
in  elementary  algebra. 

16.  Compare  the  length  of  class  periods  and  the  number  of  periods  per 
week  that  would  be  necessary  for  an  elementary  algebra  class  of  thirty 
under  an  excellent  teacher,  with  that  of  a  class  of  ten  under  a  begin- 
ning teacher. 

17.  Estimate  the  amount  of  time  that  would  be  required,  in  outside  prepa- 
ration of  an  elementary  algebra  lesson,  in  mastering  the  first  content 
assignment  in  simple  equations  under  the  expert  teacher  with  thirty 
pupils  in  the  class. 

18.  Make  a  list  of  the  laboratory  experiments  that  you  think  ought  to  be 
required  in  the  first  nine  or  eighteen  weeks  of  the  course  in  physiology, 
or  general  science.     Estimate  the  time  it  will  take  each  pupil  or  pair 
of  pupils  to  work  out  these  experiments. 

19.  What  range  of  pupils  would  you  permit  in  a  beginning  language  course 
for  equal  credit?    Why? 

80.  Criticize  the  list  of  items  given  in  the  chapter  for  grading  the  attain- 
ment of  pupils,  as  to  practicability  of  measurement,  completeness,  or 
excessiveness  of  details. 

21.  Criticize  the  range  of  marks  suggested  in  the  chapter,  and  give  con- 
crete illustrations  in  which  the  range  below  passing  would  have  been 
of  decided  advantage. 

22.  Criticize  the  suggestions  on  judging  the  value  of  a  textbook,  as  to 
practicability  and  completeness. 

23.  Select  a  recent  textbook  in  one  of  the  fundamental  elementary-school 
subjects,  and  make  out  a  detailed  set  of  instructions  to  teachers  in  the 
use  of  the  book. 

24.  Select  a  recent  textbook  in  a  high-school  subject,  and  make  out  a 
detailed  list  of  instructions  in  the  use  of  the  book. 

25.  Make  a  topical  list  of  the  content  subject-matter  for  the  first  nine 
weeks  of  a  course  in  plane  geometry,  and  state  the  amount  of  time 
that  should  be  given  to  the  presentation  of  each  topic  and  the 
amount  of  time  given  to  drill. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  137 

26.  Make  a  careful  outline  of  the  amount  and  sources  of  supplementary 
material  that  would  be  needed,  in  using  any  particular  American  his- 
tory text,  for  the  first  month's  work  in  a  high-school  class. 

27.  Make  an  outline  of  the  essential  characteristics  of  a  notebook  for  use 
in  a  general  science  course.     In  a  history  course. 

28.  Make  a  general  outline  that  you  would  use  in  giving  pupils  instructions 
in  the  preparation  and  presentation  of  special  assignments. 


CHAPTER  XI 

DEVICES  THAT  ILLUSTRATE  THE  REMAINING 
PRINCIPLES  OF  METHOD  (continued) 

II.  DEMONSTRATION  TEACHING  AND  DIRECTED 
OBSERVATION 

1.  Demonstration  teaching 

The  purpose.  The  chief  purpose  of  demonstration  teach- 
ing is  to  exemplify  the  use  of  sound  method,  show  what  de- 
vices are  effective  and  how  to  employ  them,  and  to  exhibit 
the  results  of  good  technique.  Demonstration  teaching 
should  also  be  done  for  the  purpose  of  experimentation. 
Critic  teachers  and  supervisors  should  attempt  to  discover 
new  applications  of  the  laws  of  learning,  so  that  ultimately 
the  profession  of  teaching  will  be  guided  by  concrete  illus- 
trations of  what  has  and  can  be  done  to  make  education 
more  effective.  The  greater  part  of  demonstration  teach- 
ing, however,  should  be  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  so 
much  of  the  science  and  art  of  teaching  as  has  thus  far 
proved  sound  and  worthy  of  mastering.  Such  teaching 
should  afford  excellent  opportunities  for  the  beginning 
teacher,  and  for  the  teacher  beginning  the  teaching  of  a  sub- 
ject that  is  practically  new  to  him,  to  go  through  the  mental 
theoretical  performance  of  teaching  under  the  stimulus  of 
the  actual  expert  teaching  performance  that  is  going  on. 
Demonstration  teaching  can  be  made  a  very  effective  de- 
vice, but  it  should  be  very  carefully  planned  and  conducted. 

The  following  suggestions  are  based  upon  actual  practice 
and  have  been  found  to  be  effective. 

Aim  of  the  lesson  to  be  seen.    Meet  the  group  of  teachers 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  139 

who  are  to  do  the  observing  of  the  demonstration,  before  the 
recitation  begins,  and  set  forth  clearly  the  method,  devices, 
and  technique  that  are  to  be  demonstrated.  See  that  the 
group  have  a  definite  outline  of  the  points  that  are  to  be 
exhibited  and  a  clear  comprehension  of  their  significance. 
In  other  words,  have  a  mental,  theoretical  rehearsal  of  the 
pedagogical  play  that  is  to  be  staged  for  their  benefit.  This 
point  is  a  very  important  one.  The  observer  who  is  not  left 
groping  in  the  dark  of  his  unfamiliarity  with  pedagogical 
procedure  will  receive  vastly  greater  benefit  from  his  ob- 
servations. The  observer  who  knows  what  is  coming  has 
some  chance  of  keeping  pace  mentally  with  what  is  really 
going  on,  and  in  consequence  gets  a  unified  impression  of  the 
demonstration.  He  should  be  required  to  check  up  men- 
tally his  recognition  of  the  points  that  were  to  be  demon- 
strated, and  even  to  make  some  notation  of  the  points  on 
the  outline.  If  for  any  reason  the  demonstration  should 
fail  to  include  all  of  the  points,  the  observer  should  be  able 
to  account  for  the  omission.  In  order  to  do  this  effectively 
and  systematically  the  next  point  is  suggested. 

Taking  notes.  Require  the  observers  of  the  demonstra- 
tion to  take  careful  and  rather  complete  notes  of  the  actual 
performance  of  the  demonstration.  These  notes  should  be 
complete  enough  to  furnish  the  basis  of  a  thorough  discus- 
sion of  the  demonstration.  They  should  describe  the  per- 
formance fully  enough  to  enable  the  observer  to  point  out 
the  part  of  the  performance  that  demonstrates  a  particular 
principle,  device,  or  point  of  technique  as  the  case  may  be. 
These  notes  should  be  checked  with  the  outline  of  points 
that  were  to  be  demonstrated  to  see  how  successfully  the 
demonstrator  carried  out  his  announced  plan. 

Critical  discussion  afterward.  Meet  the  group  after  the 
demonstration  for  a  thorough  discussion  of  the  points  as 
they  have  them  identified  in  their  notes.  This  discussion 


140  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

should  be  a  critical  one.  The  observers  should  be  critical 
in  checking  up  their  notes  to  see  how  much  they  are  in  agree- 
ment, and  the  supervisor  should  critically  check  the  notes 
against  the  actual  steps  of  the  demonstration. 

If  the  above  suggestions  are  put  into  practice,  they  insure 
two  abstract  and  one  concrete  intensive  mental  performance 
of  the  pedagogical  play  or  procedure.  Such  intensive  prac- 
tice soon  develops  keenness  of  insight,  alertness  of  recog- 
nition, and  completeness  of  comprehension  of  a  particular 
pedagogical  situation.  The  number  of  group  meetings 
necessary  for  carrying  on  such  intensive  demonstration 
studies  may  be  cut  down  by  having  the  period  for  discussion 
long  enough  so  that  the  notes  taken  on  the  past  demonstra- 
tion and  the  outline  of  the  next  demonstration  may  both  be 
discussed  quite  thoroughly. 

Examples  of  the  process.  The  following  examples  will 
illustrate  the  process  of  demonstration  teaching : 

I.  Outline  of  a  demonstration  lesson  in  elementary  arithmetic. 

1.  Purpose  of  the  lesson.    The  purpose  of  the  lesson  was  to  teach 
the  pupils  how  to  multiply  one  fraction  by  another  fraction. 

2.  Purpose  of  the  demonstration.     The  purpose  of  the  demon- 
stration was  to  show : 

a.  How  the  purpose  of  the  lesson  may  be  realized  by  pre- 
senting the  subject-matter  in  the  form  of  an  inductive 
problem. 

b.  The  effectiveness  of  material  devices  that  appeal  to  the 
sense  of  vision. 

c.  The  effectiveness  of  material  devices  that  guide  the 
mental  processes  of  the  pupils  in  the  selection  of  relevant 
facts  and  ideas. 

d.  The  effectiveness  of  definite  technique  in  presenting 
subject-matter  in  the  form  of  an  inductive  problem. 
Adequate  technique  involves : 

(1)  Selection  of  representative  examples  or  cases. 

(2)  Vividness  of  illustrations. 

(3)  Ampleness  of  cases  considered. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  141 

(4)  Thoroughness  of  practice  hi  analyzing  cases. 

(5)  Definiteness  of  statement  of  the  generalization  or 
rule. 

e.  The  effectiveness  of  definite  technique  hi  employing  both 
material  and  intellectual  devices.  Such  technique 
involves : 

(1)  Variety  of  forms. 

(2)  Thorough  preparation  of  forms. 

(3)  Wise  choice  of  form  or  forms  for  any  particular 
case. 

(4)  Skill  in  manipulation  of  forms. 

The  above  outline  was  thoroughly  discussed  until  the 
teachers  had  a  definite  conception  of  what  the  demonstra- 
tion should  exhibit  if  it  at  all  adequately  realized  the  pur- 
pose of  the  lesson  and  the  purpose  of  the  demonstration. 
Careful  notes  were  taken  on  the  demonstration  lesson,  and 
these  were  made  the  basis  of  a  follow-up  discussion. 

II.  Outline  of  a  demonstration  lesson  in  plane  geometry. 

1 .  Purpose  of  the  lesson.  The  purpose  of  the  lesson  was  to  teach 
the  pupils  the  fundamental  definitions  on  pages  1  and  2  of 
Schultze  and  Sevenoaks'  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry. 

£.  Purpose  of  the  demonstration.  The  purpose  of  the  demon- 
stration was  to  show: 

a.  How  the  purpose  of  the  lesson  may  be  realized  by  pre- 
senting subject-matter  in  the  form  of  a  deductive  prob- 
lem. 

b.  The  effectiveness  of  material  devices. 

c.  The  effectiveness  of  intellectual  devices. 

d.  The  effectiveness  of  definite  technique  in  presenting  the 
subject-matter  in  the  form  of  a  deductive  problem. 
Adequate  technique  involves : 

(1)  Beginning  with  clear  statement  of  each  definition 
or  generalization. 

(2)  Thorough  analysis  of  each  definition  or  generali- 
zation. 

(3)  Use  of  typical  illustrations  of  the  application  of 
the  generalization. 

(4)  Ampleness  of  typical  illustrations. 


142  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

(5)  Thoroughness  of  practice  in  making  applications 

of  the  generalizations. 

e.  The  effectiveness  of  definite  technique  in  employing  both 
material  and  intellectual  devices.  Such  technique  in- 
volves: 

(1)  Variety  of  forms. 

(2)  Thoroughness  of  preparation  of  forms. 

(3)  Wise  choice  of  form  or  forms  for  any  particular 
case. 

(4)  Skill  in  manipulating  forms. 

The  above  outline  was  handed  in  in  the  same  way  as  the 
one  previously  given,  and  was  discussed  in  a  similar  way. 

Section  summary.  Demonstration  teaching  should  have 
a  definite  goal.  This  goal  should  be  clearly  known  by  the 
observers  before  the  performance  begins.  The  observers 
should  take  careful  notes  during  the  performance.  These 
notes  and  the  performance  should  be  thoroughly  discussej 
with  the  observers  by  the  demonstrator,  after  the  perform- 
ance is  completed. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  detailed  assignment  to  a  group  that  is  to  observe  a  demon- 
stration lesson  in  sixth-grade  geography,  which  you  are  to  present. 

2.  Make  a  detailed  assignment  for  the  observation  of  a  demonstration 
lesson  in  elementary  algebra. 

8.  Make  a  definite  plan  for  conducting  the  discussion  of  the  group's 
observation  notes  on  each  of  the  above  assignments. 

4.  Criticize  the  illustrative  assignments  given  in  the  chapter,  as  to 
organization,  completeness  or  excessiveness  of  details,  and  practi- 
cability. 

2.  Directed  observation  of  teaching 

Directed  observation.  The  demonstration  teaching  that 
has  just  been  described  is  one  form  of  directed  observation. 
Another  form  of  such  observation  is  that  in  which  the  teach- 
ers are  sent  to  observe  the  work  of  an  expert  teacher  or  the 
teaching  performance  of  one  of  their  own  number.  This 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  143 

form  of  observation  should  be  carried  on  somewhat  differ- 
ently from  the  directed  observation  of  demonstration  les- 
sons. Systematic  observation  of  this  character  may  be 
carried  on  for  several  purposes.  The  plan  for  carrying  it  on 
and  the  specific  directions  to  the  teachers  who  do  the  ob- 
serving will  vary,  according  to  the  purpose  or  purposes  for 
which  the  observing  is  being  done.  Various  purposes  and 
suggestive  outlines  of  directions,  which  have  been  taken 
from  actual  practice,  are  given  below. 

a.  Preliminary  observation 

Observation  for  a  few  days  for  the  purpose  of  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  class  and  its  work  and  its  surroundings 
before  taking  charge  of  it  to  teach. 

This  type  of  observation  is  usually  carried  on  in  training 
schools  in  connection  with  practice  teaching.  The  assign- 
ment for  such  observation  is  ordinarily  of  the  following 
character: 

OBSERVATION  ASSIGNMENT 

1.  Study  the  names  of  the  pupils  in  the  class. 

2.  Note  the  seating  arrangement. 

3.  Note  the  physical  conditions;  that  is,  ventilation,  tempera- 
ture and  humidity,  lighting,  etc. 

4.  Note  personal  characteristics  of  pupils  and  their  general 
tendencies. 

5.  Observe  the  general  spirit  and  procedure  of  the  recitation. 

6.  Make  special  note  of  conditions  that  you  think  should  be 
improved  and  submit  your  plans  for  making  the  improve- 
ments. 

b.  Critical  observation 

Observation  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  critical  study  of 
the  teaching  and  management  performance  of  any  teacher, 
whether  expert  or  otherwise. 

This  type  of  observation  is  quite  different  from  the  ob- 


144  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

servation  of  demonstration  lessons  and  different  from  that 
given  above.  This  type  is  used  in  connection  with  method 
classes  in  training  schools,  and  in  public  schools  when  teach- 
ws  are  sent  to  visit  other  schools.  The  assignment  for  this 
type  of  observation  varies  according  to  the  situation  in 
which  it  is  carried  on.  The  work  is  important,  and  requires 
a  careful  organization  and  direction  of  the  observing  group 
in  order  to  make  its  efforts  effective.  Assign  only  a  few  ob- 
vious aspects  of  the  teaching  and  management  performance, 
at  the  outset  of  such  observation,  at  any  one  time. 

The  following  suggestions  are  the  result  of  experience, 
and  may  be  helpful  in  developing  insight  and  skill  in  mak- 
ing a  critical  study  of  the  work  of  a  teacher. 

OBSERVATION  ASSIGNMENT  (I) 

(Note.     Write  the  name  of  the  school,  grade,  name  of  teacher, 
date,  and  your  name.    Hand  your  notes  in  as  you  leave  the  room.) 
1.  Note  the  physical  conditions  of  the  room. 

a.  Ventilation. 

(1)  Satisfactory.    How  secured? 

(2)  Unsatisfactory.     Could  it  be  made  satisfactory? 
How? 

b.  Temperature  and  humidity. 

(1)  Satisfactory.    How  secured? 

(2)  Unsatisfactory.     Could  it  be  made  satisfactory? 
How? 

c.  Lighting. 

(1)  Satisfactory.    How  secured? 

(2)  Unsatisfactory.     Could  it  be  made  satisfactory: 
How? 

d.  Condition  of  walls  and  ceiling. 

(1)  Papered  or  painted. 

(2)  Clean  or  dingy. 

(8)  Pleasing  effect  or  displeasing. 
(4)  Pictures  and  other  decorations. 

e.  Condition  of  floors. 

(1)  Oiled  or  unoiled. 

(2)  Clean  or  littered. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  145 

/.  Blackboards. 

(1)  Amount  of  space:  —  Adequate  for  the  room  or  in- 
adequate. 

(2)  Light  good  on  boards  from  all  parts  of  room  or 
otherwise. 

(3)  Good  surface  and  usable  order  or  otherwise. 

(4)  Clean  and  in  good  usable  order  or  otherwise, 

(5)  Clean  chalk  trays  or  otherwise. 

(6)  Clean  erasers  or  otherwise. 
g.  Condition  of  pupils'  desks. 

(1)  Undamaged  or  otherwise. 

(2)  Rickety  or  substantial. 

(3)  Adapted  to  size  of  pupils  or  otherwise. 

(4)  Arrangement  in  relation  to  light  and  blackboards. 
h.  Apparatus. 

(1)  Maps:  —  Well  placed  or  otherwise,  and  condition. 

(2)  Globes :  —  Well  placed  or  otherwise,  and  condition. 
(8)  Charts :  —  Well  placed  or  otherwise,  and  condition. 

(4)  Supplementary  books :  —  Well  placed  or  otherwise, 
and  condition. 

(5)  Dictionaries:  —  Well  placed  or  otherwise,  and  con- 
dition. 

(6)  Other  items  of  apparatus-placement,  and  condi- 
tion. 

i.  Displays  of  work. 

(1)  Kinds. 

(2)  Placement 
j.  Pupils. 

(1)  Number  in  room. 

(2)  Races  and  number  of  each. 

(3)  Number  of  each  sex. 

(4)  Clothing:  fitness,  adequacy,  cleanliness. 

(5)  General  appearance:  cleanly,  healthy. 

This  assignment  contains  a  number  of  items,  but  they  are 
simply  the  details  of  the  physical  conditions  under  which 
the  teaching  is  going  on.  An  alert  observer  should  be  able 
to  check  up  on  all  of  them  during  a  fifty-minute  period  of 
observation.  A  good  device  for  saving  time  in  checking  up 
these  details,  and  thus  stimulating  the  alertness  of  the 


146  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

observer,  is  a  printed  form  with  blank  spaces  opposite  each 
item,  so  that  the  results  of  the  observations  can  be  noted 
briefly  and  quickly. 

Two  plans  for  this  assignment.  Two  plans  have  been 
followed  in  doing  this  assignment  in  observation.  One  plan 
is  to  make  the  assignment  for  the  first  one  or  two  days  that 
the  observers  visit  a  room.  Usually  a  course  in  systematic 
observation  includes  a  number  of  regular  visits  to  several 
different  grades  or  classes,  made  in  some  definite  order.  For 
example,  the  observation  class  in  an  elementary  training 
school  will  probably  visit  a  primary  grade  for  three  weeks, 
an  intermediate  grade  for  three  weeks,  an  upper  grade  for 
three  weeks,  and  a  rural  school  three  weeks.  If  the  above 
assignment  is  given  for  the  first  two  days  in  each  room  vis- 
ited, the  class  would  make  eight  such  critical  observations 
of  the  physical  conditions  that  exist  in  the  various  rooms. 

A  second  plan  is  to  visit  each  room  in  succession  for  proba- 
bly two  days  to  each  room,  the  entire  time  for  the  first  eight 
days  of  observation  being  devoted  to  the  above  assignment. 
This  plan  has  some  advantages,  but  many  disadvantages; 
hence  it  is  not  commonly  used.  The  plan  favors  rapid  habit 
formation  in  the  observation  of  physical  conditions.  It  does 
not  link  the  observation  so  readily,  however,  with  the  effect 
of  these  conditions  upon  the  recitation  work  that  would  be 
observed  during  the  working-out  of  the  subsequent  observa- 
tion assignments.  The  plan  may  also  involve  administra- 
tive difficulties  that  are  not  easy  to  offset.  For  instance, 
the  matter  of  transportation  may  not  be  as  readily  met  as 
it  can  be  when  the  class  goes  regularly  to  the  same  school 
for  as  long  a  period  as  it  will  visit  that  particular  school. 
The  matter  of  seating  equipment  may  also  be  more  advan- 
tageously handled  by  the  first  plan. 

Critical  evaluation;  judgment-forming.  When  the  first 
plan  is  followed,  the  discussions  that  are  held  on  the  physi- 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  147 

cal  conditions  of  each  of  the  succeeding  rooms  visited  should 
involve  comparison  of  the  different  physical  conditions  ob- 
served, and  the  corresponding  effects  upon  the  class  work. 
The  habit  of  critical  evaluation  of  what  is  observed  is  just 
as  important  as  the  habit  of  alertness  in  seeing  many  details 
in  a  given  situation.  In  fact,  unless  such  a  habit  is  formed 
the  habit  of  alertness  in  seeing  existing  things  will  be  of  little 
value.  The  habit  of  taking  everything  in  quickly  and  ac- 
curately, however,  must  come  first  in  order  that  the  observer 
may  have  the  basis  for  exercising  critical  judgment-form- 
ing. If  the  observer  does  not  see  important  details  in  the 
physical  situation,  he  has  very  little  to  evaluate.  The  more 
he  can  see  in  each  situation  studied,  the  more  basis  he  has 
for  making  valid  comparisons,  and  the  better  opportunity 
he  has  for  relating  the  observed  items  to  the  items  of  sub- 
sequent observation. 

The  advantage  of  starting  observation  work  with  this 
type  of  an  assignment  is  that  the  physical  conditions  are  the 
most  obvious  and  most  readily  observed.  Then,  too,  the 
observers  are  doing  a  type  of  observation  that  is  more  or 
less  familiar,  and  in  which  they  have  had  considerable  gen- 
eral practice.  The  matter,  therefore,  is  relatively  simple 
for  them  so  far  as  seeing  things  is  concerned,  and  they  can 
devote  most  of  their  energies  to  acquiring  technique  and 
skill  in  writing  down  the  things  that  they  observe.  This 
point  is  a  very  important  one.  The  use  of  the  printed  de- 
vice suggested  above,  however,  facilitates  practice  and  the 
technique  of  taking  brief  accurate  notes  is  soon  fairly  well 
acquired. 

OBSERVATION  ASSIGNMENT  (II) 

(Note.  Write  the  name  of  the  school,  grade,  name  of  the 
teacher,  your  name,  and  date.  Hand  your  notes  in  as  you  leave 
the  room.) 


148  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

1.  Note  the  devices  employed  by  the  teacher  in  the  presentation 
of  the  lesson;  classify  them  as  indicated. 

a.  Physical  devices.     Note  each  device  and  the  extent  to 
which  it  was  used. 

(1)  General. 

(a)  Blackboard. 

(6)  Books. 

(c)  Writing  materials,  etc. 

(2)  Special. 

(a)  Particular  objects. 

(b)  Special  drawings,  charts,  graphs,  etc. 

b.  Mental  devices.     Note  each  device  and  the  extent  to 
which  it  was  used. 

(1)  Lecture. 

(2)  Questions. 

(3)  Objective  presentation  of  facts. 

(4)  Correlations,  etc. 
JL  Critical  comments. 

a.  Were  the  physical  devices  well  chosen,  and  were  they 

used  too  much  or  too  little? 
6.  Would  you  suggest  physical  devices  that  were  not  used, 

but  that  might  have  secured  better  results? 

c.  Were  the  mental  devices  well  chosen,  and  were  they 
used  too  much  or  too  little? 

d.  Would  you  suggest  mental  devices  that  were  not  used, 
but  that  might  have  secured  better  results? 

e.  Were  all  devices  thoroughly  prepared  and  ready  for  use 
at  the  right  time? 

Note.  If  the  question  device  is  used,  write  down  as  many  of 
the  questions  in  complete  form  as  possible. 

Use  of  this  assignment.  The  note-taking  on  this  assign- 
ment may  be  greatly  facilitated  by  placing  printed  forms, 
with  ample  blank  space  under  each  type  of  device,  in  the 
hands  of  the  observers.  The  more  time  and  energy  the  ob- 
server can  give  to  seeing  things,  and  to  writing  them  down 
under  proper  headings  with  the  least  amount  of  actual  writ- 
ing, the  better.  The  observers  will  see  more  and  get  it  down 
in  more  usable  form  than  they  can  possibly  do  if  they  have 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  149 

to  make  their  own  headings  and  classifications  in  the  midst 
of  the  activity  of  observing  and  recording  their  observations. 
This  assignment  logically  follows  the  assignment  of  the 
first  type.  Devices  are  more  obvious  and  more  readily  ob" 
served  than  the  items  of  the  teaching  performance  that  are 
given  in  the  next  assignments.  If  plan  one  as  outlined  above 
is  followed,  then  the  assignment  on  devices  will  be  given 
about  the  second  or  third  visit  to  each  room,  and  the  same 
assignment  continued  until  the  class  acquires  insight,  accu- 
racy, and  skill  in  observing  the  use  of  devices  in  teaching. 
At  least  four  or  five  assignments  of  the  second  type  should 
be  given  for  each  room  visited. 

OBSERVATION  ASSIGNMENT  (EH) 

(Note.    Write  the  name  of  the  school,  grade,  the  teacher's  name, 
your  name,  and  date.    Hand  your  notes  in  as  you  leave  the  room.) 
1.  Note  the  technique  of  the  teacher.    Note  each  item  of  tech- 
nique that  was  prominent  and  when  possible  note  the  number 
of  times  practiced.      The  following  items  are  suggestive. 
Extend  the  list  as  the  situation  demands, 
a.  Repeating  answers  of  pupils. 
6.  Asking  too  many  questions,  or  too  few. 

c.  Failing  to  state  questions  clearly,  and  in  the  fewest  pos- 
sible words. 

d.  Excellent  statement  of  questions. 

e.  Clear  explanations,  or  the  opposite. 

/.  Naming  the  pupil  who  is  to  answer  before  asking  the 

question. 
g.  Asking  question  first  and  then  naming  pupil  who  is  to 

answer. 
A.  Not  giving  sufficient  time  for  thinking  out  the  answer 

or  discussion  before  naming  the  pupil  who  is  to  recite. 
i.  Automatically  saying  "all  right,"  "correct,"  "yes,"  or 

any  set  indication  that  the  answer  is  satisfactory, 
j.  Indicating  the  answer  by  the  form  of  the  question. 
k.  Breaking  the  subject-matter  up  into  too  small  units. 
/.  Not  breaking  the  subject-matter  up  into  small  enough 

units. 


150  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

m.  Teacher's  voice:  Pitch,  modulation,  quality,  power. 
n.  Teacher's  attitude :  Enthusiastic,  sympathetic,  or  oppo- 

sites. 
o.  Teacher's  bearing:  Natural,  dignified,  self-reliant,  or 

opposites. 

2.  What  is  the  effect  of  any  particular  item  of  technique  upon 
the  class  and  the  recitation? 

Use  of  this  assignment.  The  use  of  a  printed  form  for 
this  type  of  observation  assignment  is  highly  essential  if  the 
observers  are  to  get  anything  down  systematically  and  ac- 
curately. The  mere  writing-out  of  the  various  headings  or 
items  of  technique  that  may  be  observed  during  forty  or 
fifty  minutes  would  take  all  of  the  observer's  time,  so  that 
little  or  no  check  could  be  made  of  the  recurrence  of  items 
that  should  be  noted  accurately.  Accuracy  and  fairness 
should  be  insisted  upon.  Sometimes  it  is  best  to  assign  only 
a  part  of  the  above  items  at  a  time,  and  so  develop  a  sensi- 
tiveness to  some  of  the  best  and  some  of  the  worst  forms  of 
technique.  All  of  the  above  and  possibly  more  items  should 
be  included  in  the  assignments  before  this  type  of  assign- 
ment is  discontinued.  At  least  five  or  six  assignments  for 
each  room  visited  should  be  made  before  taking  up  the  next 
type  of  assignment. 

The  discussions  that  are  held  on  this  type  of  assignment 
should  lay  a  great  deal  of  stress  upon  the  results  of  particular 
items  of  technique,  as  shown  by  the  reactions  of  the  pupils. 
The  fact  should  be  made  patent  that  an  item  of  technique 
in  itself  is  neither  good  nor  bad,  but  that  its  use  in  a  particu- 
lar connection  makes  it  good  or  bad.  Observers  should  be 
cautioned  and  trained  to  discriminate  accurately  between 
effective  and  ineffective  use  of  the  same  item  of  technique. 

OBSERVATION  ASSIGNMENT  (IV) 

(Note.  Write  the  name  of  the  school,  grade,  name  of  the  teacher, 
your  name,  and  date.  Hand  your  notes  in  as  you  leave  the  room.] 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  151 

1.  Note  the  application  of  method  to  the  organization  and  pres- 
entation of  subject-matter.    Indicate  as  fully  as  possible  the 
organization  under  the  appropriate  headings. 

a.  Inductive  type  of  organization. 

(1)  Number  of  cases  presented.  —  Note  as  many  com- 
plete cases  as  possible. 

(2)  Representativeness  of  cases. 

(3)  Vividness  of  appeal  of  cases. 

(4)  Ampleness  of  material. 

(5)  Thoroughness  of  practice. 

(6)  Clearness  of  generalization. 

b.  Deductive  type  of  organization. 

(1)  Generalization  presented. 

(2)  Typical  illustrative  cases. 
(S)  Ampleness  of  cases. 

(4)  Thoroughness  of  practice. 

2.  Critical  comments. 

a.  Was  the  type  of  organization  selected  well  adapted  to 

the  subject-matter  of  the  subject? 
6.  Was  the  type  of  organization  selected  well  adapted  to 

the  mental  maturity  of  the  class? 

Use  of  this  assignment.  The  items  on  this  assignment 
are  not  so  readily  observable  in  the  recitation  as  are  the 
items  of  the  previous  assignments.  For  the  first  two  or 
three  observation  assignments  of  this  type,  the  observers 
should  have  the  teacher's  assignment  of  subject-matter  and 
the  plan  for  its  presentation  before  they  visit  the  class.  This 
will  give  them  an  opportunity  to  study  the  application  of 
method  that  is  intended  by  the  teacher.  Then  the  period  of 
observation  can  be  devoted  to  observing  critically  the  ap- 
plication of  method  that  is  actually  made  in  the  recitation. 
Finally,  however,  the  observers  should  be  able  to  analyze 
the  recitation  performance  accurately  enough  to  be  able  to 
say  definitely  that  the  one  or  the  other  type  of  organization 
of  subject-matter  was  employed  throughout,  or  that  one 
type  was  used  in  part  of  the  recitation  and  the  other  type 
was  used  in  another  part. 


159  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

Purpose  and  use  of  these  observation  assignments.  The 
purpose  of  the  above  types  of  observation  assignments  is 
obvious.  The  aim  is  to  develop  skill  in  observing  groups  of 
items  that  become  more  and  more  difficult  of  observation. 
It  also  aims  at  attacking  specific  problems  in  the  teaching 
performance.  The  ability  to  separate  the  method  em- 
ployed, from  the  devices  and  the  technique,  is  highly  im- 
portant. Practice  in  giving  attention  to  these  different 
aspects  of  the  teaching  performance  in  turn  will  finally 
develop  the  ability  to  study  all  three  in  parallel  during  a 
recitation  and  to  take  accurate  notes  upon  them.  The  dis- 
cussions on  these  assignments  should  seek  to  develop  con- 
structive criticisms  and  positive  suggestions.  Observers 
should  get  the  point  of  view  that  to  see  what  takes  place 
is  not  enough,  but  that  one  must  see  how  improvement 
could  be  made. 

The  following  rules  as  to  the  use  of  observation  assign- 
ments will  prove  helpful  if  followed: 

1.  Continue  each  assignment  of  the  above  sort  until  the  ob- 
servers have  acquired  skill  in  observing  these  aspects  of 
school  work. 

2.  Gradually  combine  these  groups  of  points  into  larger  groups 
until  the  observers  are  able  to  note  accurately  all  the  aspects 
of  teaching  and  management  that  are  exhibited  during  their 
visits. 

3.  Require  detailed  notes  to  be  written  during  the  period  of 
observation  and  handed  in  before  leaving  the  room. 

4.  Meet  the  group  for  a  discussion  of  their  notes  on  the  same 
day.     The  director  of  the  observation  should  go  over  the 
notes  carefully  before  the  discussion  period,  and  be  prepared 
to  discuss  the  various  types  of  errors  and  weaknesses  in  skill 
of  making  critical  observations  that  the  notes  reveal.     Con- 
structive suggestions  as  to  how  these  defects  can  be  remedied 
should  be  made.     In  order  to  do  this  effectively  the  director 
or  supervisor  of  the  observation  work  should  follow  the  next 
suggestion. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  153 

5.  Accompany  the  class  on  every  observation  visit  that  is  to  be 
discussed  at  a  later  period.  The  director  should  observe  the 
same  performance,  and  make  accurate  mental  and  written 
notes  of  the  things  that  the  class  has  opportunity  to  observe. 
This  is  the  only  accurate  basis  upon  which  a  constructive 
discussion  of  the  observation  made  by  the  class  can  be 
carried  on. 

3.  Observation  to  evaluate  teaching 

Another  phase  of  observation  is  that  in  which  teachers 
study  the  total  teaching  performance  for  the  purpose  of 
writing  a  critical  evaluation  of  it.  This  type  of  observation 
is  a  test  of  the  effectiveness  of  the  work  that  has  been  done 
under  the  preceding  type.  The  practice  of  first  observing 
small  groups  of  points,  and  later  of  observing  larger  and 
larger  combinations  of  these  groups  until  finally  all  the 
points  in  teaching  and  management  that  are  important  are 
included  in  each  assignment,  will  finally  develop  a  degree  of 
mental  alertness  and  accuracy  that  is  dependable  in  taking 
in  all  the  important  points  exhibited  in  any  teaching  per- 
formance. As  soon  as  this  skill  has  been  developed  to  a  sat- 
isfactory degree  of  accuracy,  then  the  teacher  is  ready  to  re- 
ceive training  in  evaluating  the  teaching  and  management 
performance. 

Prerequisites  for  this  type  of  observation.  The  observer 
cannot  make  an  accurate  and  fair  evaluation  of  a  teacher's 
work  without  knowing  what  purpose  the  teacher  has  in 
mind  and  how  he  plans  to  accomplish  the  purpose.  The  ob- 
server should  not  only  know  the  teacher's  purpose  and  plan 
for  accomplishing  it,  but  he  should  also  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  that  the  teacher  expects  to 
employ  in  the  recitation  that  is  to  be  observed.  Therefore, 
in  order  to  carry  on  this  type  of  observation  so  as  to  develop 
skill  and  fairness  in  evaluating  the  worth  of  a  teacher's 
classroom  performance,  the  observer  should  be  required  to: 


154  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

EVALUATION  OBSERVATION  OUTLINE 

1.  Study  the  subject-matter  of  each  lesson  that  is  to  be  observed. 

2.  Have  a  copy  of  the  teacher's  lesson  plan  for  the  recitation 
that  is  to  be  observed,  long  enough  before  the  recitation  to 
make  a  careful  study  of  it. 

3.  Take  notes  on  the  recitation  under  the  headings : 

a.  Application  of  method  or  form  of  subject-matter  organi- 
zation employed.     (That  is,  inductive  or  deductive.) 

b.  Devices  used. 

(1)  Physical:  skill  or  lack  of  skill  in  manipulating  each 
device. 

(2)  Mental :  skill  or  lack  of  skill  in  manipulating  each 
device. 

C.  Technique,  or  habit  practiced. 

(1)  Right  habits:  number  of  times  each  was  used  and 
effect  upon  the  results  of  the  recitation. 

(2)  Wrong  habits :  number  of  times  each  was  used  and 
effect  upon  the  results  of  the  recitation. 

d.  Critical  comments. 

(1)  Did  the  recitation  accomplish  the  purpose  stated 
in  the  lesson  plan? 

(2)  What  knowledge  was  definitely  acquired? 

(3)  What  habits  were  positively  furthered? 

(4)  Was  the  lesson  plan  followed  completely?   If  not, 
were  the  changes  hi  procedure  justifiable? 

(5)  What  could  the  teacher  have  done  to  render  the 
recitation  more  effective? 

(6)  In  what  phase  of  teaching  was  the  teacher  strongest  ? 

(a)  Application  of  method? 

(b)  Selection  and  manipulation  of  devices? 

(c)  Technique? 

4.  Rank  the  performance  as  a  whole,  based  upon  the  specific 
acts  of  the  teacher  and  the  reactions  of  the  pupils. 

a.  Superior. 

b.  Excellent. 

c.  Good. 

d.  Fair. 

e.  Poor. 

/.  Very  poor. 

6.  Hand  the  written  notes  on  the  whole  procedure  in  before 
leaving  the  room. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  155 

Use  of  this  type  of  observation.  The  director  or  super- 
visor should  visit  the  same  performance  that  the  class  of  ob- 
servers visits,  and  make  a  critical  evaluation  of  the  recita- 
tion according  to  the  above  suggestions.  The  group  should 
meet  for  discussion  of  the  notes  they  have  taken  and  handed 
in.  The  supervisor  should  go  over  these  notes  before  the 
discussion  period,  and  prepare  a  constructive  discussion  of 
their  excellences  and  their  defects.  If  possible,  the  teacher 
whose  work  was  observed  should  be  present  at  this  discus- 
sion. The  teacher  observed  should  have  an  opportunity  to 
defend  his  procedure  when  he  feels  that  the  criticisms  are 
unjust  or  in  error.  He  should  have  the  opportunity  to  profit 
by  valid  suggestions  and  intelligent  comments  on  his  work. 
Often  there  are  conditions  and  influences  that  the  teacher 
cannot  control  and  for  which  he  is  not  responsible.  These 
conditions  and  influences  may  go  far  toward  defeating  the 
most  skillful  teaching  performance.  The  teacher  should 
not  be  judged  without  opportunity  to  give  information  of 
this  character,  for  observation  may  not  reveal  these  factors. 

The  critical  test  of  the  ability  of  teachers  to  observe  teach- 
ing discriminatingly  is  the  accuracy  and  completeness  of  the 
notes  they  take  on  all  the  observable  aspects  of  teaching  and 
management  exhibited  in  a  single  recitation.  The  thor- 
oughness with  which  they  classify  the  observed  items  ex- 
hibited, under  the  distinct  aspects  of  the  situation  —  that 
is,  under  physical  conditions,  devices,  technique,  and 
method  —  is  a  fair  criterion  of  the  intelligence  with  which 
the  observing  is  carried  on.  A  last  test  of  the  results  of  this 
observation  training  is  the  ability  of  the  observers  to  dis- 
cover the  particular  phases  of  the  teaching  performance  that 
are  responsible  for  the  success  or  failure  of  the  recitation,  so 
far  as  it  can  be  determined  on  its  face.  Special  emphasis 
should  be  given  to  this  item  in  the  critical  comments  that 
are  required  in  the  above  outline. 


156  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

Section  summary.  Directed  observation  should  develop 
skill  in  evaluating  teaching  performances.  Such  observa- 
tion should  begin  with  a  study  of  a  few  of  the  most  obvious 
physical  aspects  of  the  classroom,  and  progress  to  a  study  of 
the  most  obvious  aspects  of  the  teaching  performance,  then 
to  the  less  obvious,  then  to  the  least  obvious  aspects,  and 
finally  to  a  study  of  all  aspects  of  the  classroom  and  the 
teaching  performance,  during  each  observation  period. 

The  plan  of  administration  may  be  to  carry  the  study  of 
each  type  of  assignment  through  all  the  classrooms  that  are 
to  be  visited  before  taking  up  the  next  type,  or  it  may  be  to 
take  up  each  type  of  assignment  in  one  classroom  before 
going  to  another  room.  The  assignment  should  be  clearly 
understood  by  the  observers  before  the  visit  to  the  recita- 
tion is  made.  They  should  take  detailed  notes  on  the  as- 
signment during  the  period  of  observation  and  these  notes 
should  be  discussed  with  the  observers  after  the  observation 
period. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  an  outline  of  the  observation  assignment  you  would  give  a 
teacher  to  help  him  in  becoming  acquainted  with  a  particular  class 
and  classroom. 

2.  Make  a  blank  that  would  be  economical  for  observers  to  use  in  noting 
the  physical  aspects  of  a  teaching  situation.     Study  critically  the 
outline  for  such  an  assignment  given  in  the  chapter,  and  try  to  im- 
prove upon  it  in  making  the  blank. 

3.  Make  a  similar  blank  for  use  in  noting  the  devices  employed  by  the 
teacher  in  a  particular  recitation. 

4.  Criticize  the  assignment  outline  given  in  the  chapter  for  observing 
devices  used,  as  to  practicability,  completeness  or  excessiveness  ol 
details,  formalism,  and  organization. 

5.  Make  a  blank  form  that  will  be  economical  for  use  in  noting  the  tech- 
nique of  the  teacher  in  a  teaching  performance. 

6.  Criticize  the  outline  given  in  the  chapter  for  observing  technique,  as 
to  practicability,  completeness  or  excessiveness  of  details,  and  organi- 
zation. 

7.  Make  a  blank  form  for  use  in  noting  the  principles  of  method  used  by 
the  teacher  in  the  presentation  of  a  lesson. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  157 

8.  Criticize  the  assignment  outline  given  in  the  chapter  for  the  observa- 
tion of  method,  as  to  organization,  and  completeness  or  excessiveness 
of  details. 

9.  Make  a  blank  form  that  will  include  the  fundamental  items  from  all 
the  types  of  observation  assignments  made  in  the  chapter.     Make  a 
list  of  instructions  that  will  guide  the  observers  in  using  the  blank, 
systematically  and  economically,  in  taking  observation  notes  on  all 
the  aspects  of  the  teaching  performance  during  a  single  recitation 
performance. 

10.  Make  an  outline  of  the  procedure  you  would  follow  in  discussing  the 
observation  notes  of  the  various  types  with  the  observers,  after  the 
observation  period  is  over. 

11.  Criticize  the  outline  given  in  the  chapter  for  making  an  estimate  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  teaching  performance  that  is  observed,  as  to 
organization,  completeness  or  excessiveness  of  details,  and  possibility 
of  accuracy  in  judging  each  item. 

12.  Make  a  plan  for  conducting  a  discussion  of  the  observers'  evaluation 
of  the  teacher's  efficiency,  with  the  teacher  being  criticized  present 
and  participating  in  the  discussion. 

4-  Emergency  demonstration  teaching 

Use  and  purpose  of  this.  The  main  idea  in  directing  the 
work  of  teachers  is  to  anticipate  the  pitfalls  and  instruct  the 
teacher  in  the  science  and  art  of  avoiding  them.  If  this  idea 
is  carried  out  thoroughly,  the  further  development  of  the 
teacher  can  be  accomplished  through  corrective  suggestions. 
As  a  rule,  therefore,  the  teacher  should  be  undisturbed 
throughout  the  recitation.  There  are  times,  however,  when 
the  supervisor  should,  in  the  interest  of  the  teacher  and  in 
the  interest  of  the  class  being  taught,  take  up  the  recitation 
in  its  midst  and  conduct  it  for  a  part  or  for  all  of  the  remain- 
der of  the  period.  Such  cases  should  be  very  adroitly  and 
diplomatically  handled,  so  that  the  class  will  be  safeguarded 
in  its  learning  and  so  that  the  teacher  will  be  prevented  from 
making  serious  errors.  The  teacher  must  be  enabled,  how- 
ever, to  sustain  his  dignity  before  the  class  and  to  retain 
authority  over  the  situation. 

The  two  purposes  of  this  type  of  demonstration  teaching 
should  be  held  clearly  in  mind  by  the  supervisor,  for  they 


158  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

determine  when  the  situation  warrants  the  interruption  of 
the  teacher's  procedure.  A  brief  description  of  typical 
cases  will  bring  out  both  the  sorts  of  situations  that  are 
meant  and  the  technique  of  making  the  transition  of  the 
leadership  or  teaching  from  the  teacher  to  the  supervisor. 

Example  i.  A  pupil  in  a  plane  geometry  class  was  trying 
to  apply  a  theorem  to  the  solution  of  a  practical  problem. 
He  was  experiencing  difficulty  in  getting  the  data  organized 
into  the  correct  series  of  steps  that  would  lead  to  a  valid  con- 
clusion. The  teacher  attempted  to  help  him  by  asking 
questions  concerning  certain  facts  and  principles  that  were 
involved  in  the  solution.  The  pupil  continued  to  flounder 
around  and  was  obviously  not  getting  any  help  from  the 
teacher's  questions  and  suggestions.  The  supervisor  recog- 
nized both  the  difficulty  of  the  pupil  and  the  difficulty  of  the 
teacher.  Time  was  being  lost,  and  neither  pupil  nor  teacher 
was  gaining  any  ground  in  the  solution  of  the  respective 
problem.  The  pupil  was  trying  to  learn  the  connection  be- 
tween the  practical  situation  presented  in  the  problem  and 
the  principles  of  geometry  that  he  had  learned.  The 
teacher  was  trying  to  discover  the  difficulty  of  the  pupil  and 
to  find  the  best  line  of  procedure  in  guiding  his  thinking  so 
he  would  correct  his  errors.  The  supervisor  realized  two 
responsibilities;  namely,  that  of  helping  the  pupil  to  learn 
the  thing  he  was  trying  to  master,  and  to  help  the  teacher 
to  discover  why  she  was  not  succeeding  in  her  attempts  to 
extricate  the  pupil  from  his  difficulties. 

The  supervisor  allowed  the  situation  to  develop  to  the 
point  where  both  teacher  and  pupil  realized  they  were  not 
succeeding.  He  showed  by  his  attitude  that  he  was  inter- 
ested and  in  sympathy  with  both  teacher  and  pupil.  Fi- 
nally he  said,  "  Miss  B ,  may  I  ask  L a  question?  " 

The  teacher  gladly  consented.  Then  the  supervisor  by  a 
series  of  questions  led  the  pupil  to  visualize  the  parts  of  the 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  159 

figure  that  had  been  used  in  developing  the  facts  and  prin- 
ciples of  the  particular  theorem.  He  then  directed  the  at- 
tention of  the  pupil  to  the  clear  visualization  of  the  practical 
situation  presented  in  the  problem.  As  soon  as  the  pupil 
visualized  the  two  situations  clearly,  he  could  readily  recog- 
nize that  the  same  logic  applied  in  both  cases,  and  the  solu- 
tion of  the  particular  problem  was  easily  reached. 

The  result  for  the  pupil  of  the  intervention  of  the  super- 
visor was  an  intensive  effort  that  netted  him  a  definite  men- 
tal gain.  The  result  for  the  teacher  was  that  she  recognized 
that  her  failure  was  due  to  directing  the  attention  of  the 
pupil  to  the  logic  of  the  two  situations,  without  first  having 
the  visualization  of  them  clearly  established  as  the  basis  for 
the  application  of  the  proper  logic.  In  other  words,  the 
pupil  learned  something  about  applying  geometrical  prin- 
ciples to  practical  situations,  and  the  teacher  learned  some- 
thing about  how  to  teach  a  pupil  to  learn  how  to  apply  prin- 
ciples to  practical  problems.  As  soon  as  the  pupil  had 
arrived  at  a  clear  solution  of  the  problem  upon  which  he 
was  working  the  supervisor  dropped  into  the  background, 
and  the  teacher  went  on  with  the  recitation. 

Example  2.  A  pupil  in  a  beginning  Latin  class  was  called 
upon  to  translate  an  English  sentence  into  Latin.  The 
sentence  involved  a  difficult  construction  in  the  indirect 
discourse.  The  teacher  by  suggestions  and  questions  led 
the  pupil  to  work  out  a  translation  that  she  accepted.  The 
translation,  however,  contained  a  rather  serious  error.  The 
teacher  was  evidently  accepting  the  error  because  she  did 
not  know  that  it  was  an  error.  The  construction  in  point 
would  come  up  in  subsequent  lessons,  hence  the  supervisor 
hesitated  a  moment  as  to  whether  or  not  he  should  interfere. 
The  wrong  impression  upon  the  minds  of  the  pupils  was 
likely  to  be  difficult  to  counteract  if  they  were  allowed  to 
take  the  case  in  hand  as  a  good  illustration  of  the  particular 


160  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

construction.  The  supervisor  quickly  decided  that  the 
situation  demanded  correction  then  and  there.  Since  the 
teacher  was  proceeding,  through  lack  of  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  to  teach  something  that  was  incorrect,  the 
situation  was  somewhat  embarrassing.  The  emergency, 
however,  seemed  to  warrant  running  the  risk  of  embarrass- 
ing the  teacher  and  even  the  risk  of  making  the  pupils  doubt 
her  reliability  in  the  future. 

The  supervisor  said,  "  Miss  B ,  may  I  hear  the  trans- 
lation of  that  sentence  again?  I  am  not  sure  that  I  heard  it 
all  the  way  through,  particularly  that  expression"  —  nam- 
ing the  expression  —  "  on  which  I  have  to  watch  myself  very 
closely  to  keep  from  getting  it  wrong."  This  statement  put 
pupils  and  teacher  on  guard  to  study  the  difficult  part  of  the 
sentence  as  it  was  translated.  It  also  made  the  pupils  feel 
that  even  for  the  teacher  to  make  an  error  on  that  construc- 
tion was  no  reason  to  condemn  her,  for  the  supervisor  ad- 
mitted the  probability  of  almost  any  one,  no  matter  how 
expert,  making  a  slip  in  trying  to  express  it  in  Latin.  The 
supervisor  then  proceeded  to  raise  questions  about  the  con- 
struction, and  soon  led  both  teacher  and  pupils  to  see  what 
was  correct.  After  the  point  seemed  to  be  satisfactorily 
settled,  he  suggested  that  they  all  watch  for  that  particular 
construction  and  see  how  many  examples  of  it  they  found  in 
the  succeeding  lessons.  He  then  dropped  into  the  back- 
ground, and  the  teacher  went  on  with  the  recitation. 

Situations  that  justify  supervisory  interference.  The 
situations  that  seem  to  justify  the  interferences  on  the  part 
of  the  supervisor  are  those  in  which  the  pupil  is  not  learning, 
and  the  teacher  is  not  learning  how  to  help  the  pupil  to  learn, 
and  those  in  which  the  teacher  is  teaching  something  that  is 
incorrect.  In  the  first  type  of  case  the  teacher  was  not  lack- 
ing in  knowledge  of  the  subject,  but  was  lacking  in  insight 
and  skill  in  teaching.  In  the  second  type  of  case  the  pupils 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  161 

were  learning  and  the  teacher  was  succeeding  in  helping 
them  to  learn,  but  the  thing  being  taught  was  wrong.  These 
two  types  cover  practically  all  the  emergencies  that  will 
arise.  The  third  type  of  case  necessarily  would  be  a  com- 
bination of  these  two;  namely,  a  situation  in  which  the 
teacher  was  unsuccessfully  trying  to  teach  something  that 
was  wrong,  but  was  not  succeeding  on  account  of  not  realiz- 
ing just  what  the  mental  difficulties  of  the  pupils  were.  The 
pupils  in  this  case  would  not  be  learning  the  thing  they  were 
trying  to  learn,  because  they  would  be  failing  to  carry  on  the 
proper  mental  activities  that  would  be  involved  in  learn- 
ing even  the  incorrect  form  of  subject-matter.  Such  a  case 
would  not  involve  any  different  procedure  on  the  part  of  the 
supervisor  from  that  given  above. 

The  supervisor  should  know  what  the  assignment  is  and 
the  teacher's  plan  for  teaching  that  assignment  before  he 
visits  the  recitation,  if  he  is  to  be  in  a  position  to  judge  wisely 
as  to  how  long  he  should  continue  the  emergency  demonstra- 
tion teaching.  If  the  crucial  point  is  not  likely  to  be  seri- 
ously involved  throughout  the  remainder  of  the  recitation, 
as  was  the  case  in  the  illustrations  above,  the  supervisor  can 
readily  drop  into  the  background  and  let  the  teacher  go  on 
alone.  In  fact,  the  supervisor  really  has  appeared  in  the  at- 
titude of  a  member  of  the  group,  and  the  teacher  has  re- 
mained in  his  position  as  leader  so  that  his  authority  and 
control  over  the  class  has  not  been  interfered  with.  If, 
however,  the  crucial  point  is  seriously  involved  in  the  re- 
mainder of  the  recitation,  and  the  supervisor  feels  that  he 
will  likely  have  to  keep  breaking  in  with  suggestions  in  order 
to  help  both  teacher  and  pupils,  then  the  supervisor  had 
better  teach  the  rest  of  the  lesson. 

Section  summary.  The  supervisor  should  take  the  teach- 
ing situation  out  of  the  hands  of  the  teacher  only  when  a  real 
emergency  exists.  Such  an  emergency  exists  when  the 


162  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

pupil  is  not  learning,  and  the  teacher  is  at  a  loss  to  know 
what  to  do  to  help  him;  and  such  an  emergency  exists  when 
the  teacher  is  succeeding,  but  is  teaching  something  that  is 
incorrect.  The  supervisor  should  handle  the  situation  in 
such  a  way  as  to  uphold  the  dignity  and  authority  of  the 
teacher,  and  to  strengthen  his  future  work. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Give  five  cases,  from  your  own  experience,  in  which  there  was  a  de- 
cided gain  to  pupils  and  to  the  teacher  through  the  emergency  teach- 
ing of  the  supervisor. 

2.  Give  five  cases,  from  your  own  experience,  in  which  there  was  a  de- 
cided loss  to  pupils  and  to  the  teacher  through  the  failure  of  the  super- 
visor to  intervene  in  the  recitation  with  emergency  teaching. 

3.  Give  five  cases,  from  your  own  experience,  in  which  there  was  a  de- 
cided loss  to  pupils  and  to  the  teacher  through  the  untimely  emergency 
teaching  of  the  supervisor. 

4.  Give  two  or  more  illustrations,  from  experience  of  the  emergency  situ- 
ation in  which  the  teacher  was  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  do  to  help 
the  pupil  learn. 

5.  Give  two  or  more  illustrations,  from  experience,  of  the  emergency 
situation  in  which  the  teacher  was  successfully  teaching  something 
that  is  incorrect. 

6.  Give  two  or  more  illustrations,  from  experience,  of  the  emergency 
situation  in  which  the  teacher  was  trying  to  teach  something  that  was 
incorrect,  but  was  not  succeeding. 

7.  Give  an  example  of  an  emergency  situation  in  which  the  supervisor 
should  take  charge  of  the  recitation  for  only  a  short  time. 

8.  Give  an  example  of  an  emergency  situation  in  which  the  supervisor 
should  take  charge  of  the  recitation  until  the  end  of  the  period. 


CHAPTER  XH 

DEVICES  THAT  ILLUSTRATE  THE  REMAINING 
PRINCIPLES  OF  METHOD  (continued) 

HI.  DIRECTED  TEACHING  AND  SUPERVISED  STUDY 

1.  Directed  teaching 

What  this  involves.  The  direction  of  actual  teaching 
work  of  student  teachers  and  regular  teachers,  means  direc- 
tion of  all  the  activities  that  are  involved  in  preparing  for 
and  conducting  each  daily  recitation  that  the  student  or 
regular  teacher  is  to  hold.  Hence  the  supervision  of  teach- 
ing must  begin  before  the  teacher  enters  the  classroom  to 
teach,  as  well  as  to  direct  the  work  of  the  teacher  in  the  reci- 
tation. The  knowledge  involved  under  I,  II,  III,  below, 
should  have  been  mastered  by  the  student  teacher  in  other 
courses  prerequisite  to  the  teaching,  but  the  supervisor 
should  check  them  up  to  the  teacher,  as  indicated  below,  for 
convenient  reference  during  the  course. 

The  act  of  teaching  and  managing  a  class  involves  three 
fundamental  factors  —  namely,  the  method,  the  devices, 
and  the  technique  —  that  most  adequately  motivate  the 
work  of  the  pupils  and  secure  mastery  of  the  subject.  Ef- 
fective supervision  must  take  into  account  the  distinctions 
between  these  factors  and  instruct  the  learning  teacher  in 
the  principles  of  method,  make  the  teacher  acquainted  with 
the  devices,  and  train  the  teacher  in  proper  efficient  tech- 
nique. 

Therefore  the  supervisor  should  give  the  teacher  an  out- 
line somewhat  as  follows: 


164  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

OUTLINE  FOB  DIBECTED  TEACHING 

I.  As  to  method 

1.  Whether  the  subject  as  a  whole  can  be  developed  best  in  the 
form  of  inductive  problems,  or  deductive  problems. 

2.  What  parts  of  the  subject  can  be  developed  best  in  the  form  of 
inductive  problems,  and  what  parts  can  be  taught  best  in  the 
form  of  deductive  problems. 

3.  The  technique  of  presenting  subject-matter  in  the  form  of 
inductive  problems,  which  is  as  follows: 

a.  Use  striking  representative  cases  first,  then  less  striking 
cases,  and  then  still  less  striking  cases,  etc.,  until  the  gen- 
eralization seems  to  be  mastered. 

6.  Make  the  illustrations  appeal  as  vividly  as  possible  to  both 
the  sensory  and  mental  experiences  of  the  pupils. 

c.  Use  an  ample  amount  of  material. 

d.  Practice  upon  the  material  thoroughly. 

e.  Require  a  definite  and  accurate  statement  of  the  generali- 
zation. 

4.  The  technique  of  presenting  subject-matter  in  the  form  of 
deductive  problems,  which  is  as  follows: 

a.  Begin  with  a  clear  statement  of  the  generalization  or 
definition. 

b.  Use  typical  illustrations  of  its  application. 

c.  Use  an  ample  number  of  applications  and  practice  thor- 
oughly. 

II.  As  to  devices 

1.  To  what  extent  such  general  devices  as  blackboards,  maps, 
encyclopaedia,  dictionary,  charts,  lantern,  lecture,  questions, 
correlations,  etc.,  are  essential  and  helpful  in  the  presentation 
of  the  subject. 

2.  To  what  extent  devices  special  to  the  subject  or  to  certain  phases 
of  the  subject,  such  as  objects,  models,  outlines,  graphs,  special 
apparatus,  special  correlations,  special  types  of  questions,  etc., 
are  essential  and  helpful  in  the  presentation  of  the  subject. 

3.  Technique  in  using  devices,  which  involves  the  habit  of: 

a.  Deciding  when  making  the  daily  plan  exactly: 

(1)  What  physical  devices  will  be  used  and  the  extent 
to  which  they  will  be  used. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  165 

(2)  What  mental  devices  will  be  used  and  the  extent  to 

which  they  will  be  used. 

6.  Working  out  each  device  carefully  and  fully  preparing  it 
before  class  time.  Technique  in  manipulating  devices 
should  give  special  attention  to  the  art  of  questioning  and 
of  lecturing.  The  outline  below  suggests  important  habits 
that  should  be  formed : 
(1)  Questioning: 

(a)  Preparing  careful  list  of  questions  before  reci- 
tation rather  than  depending  upon  spontane- 
ous questions  during  the  recitation. 

(b)  Adapting  the  kinds  of  questions  to  the  nature 
of  the  subject-matter,  the  development  of  the 
pupils,  and  the  purpose  of  the  recitation.    Such 
adaptation  will  include: 

(6  l)  Thought-provoking  questions,  demand- 
ing interpretations  of  subject-matter. 

(b  2)  Fact  questions,  demanding  memory. 

(6  3)  Developing  questions. 

(b  *)  Pivotal  questions. 

(6  6)  Questions  answered  by  yes  or  no  (at 
times). 

(6  ')  Questions  that  answer  themselves  (at 
times). 

(c)  Regulating  the  number  of  questions  by: 

(c  l)  The  nature  of  the  subject-matter  and 
the  amount  that  is  involved  in  the 
answer. 

(c  *)  The  size  of  the  class  and  the  maturity 
of  pupils. 

(c  s)  The  length  of  the  recitation. 

(d)  Regulating  the  speed  of  asking  questions  by 
the  purpose  of  the  lesson  as  to  whether  for: 

(d  l)  Review. 
(d  2)  Drill;  or 

(d  s)  Discussion  of  new  material. 
(«)  Having  pupils : 

(e  l)  Question  one  another  on  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  subject-matter;  and 
(e  *)  Question  one  another  about  their  dis- 
cussions. 


168  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

(/)  Guarding  against: 

(/ J)  Repeating  the  answers  of  the  pupils. 
(f  2)  Asking  too  many  questions,  or  too  few. 
(/3)  Breaking  subject-matter  up  into  too 

small  fragments. 
(/ 4)  Failing  to  state  questions  clearly  in  the 

fewest  words. 
(/ 5)  Indicating  the  answer  by  the  form  of 

the  question. 
(/ 6)  Naming  the  pupil  who  is  to  answer 

before  asking  the  question. 
(/ 7)  Not  giving  sufficient  time  for  thinking 
out  the  answer  or   discussion  before 
naming  the  one  who  is  to  recite. 
(/  8)  Automatically  saying  "all  right,"  "cor- 
rect," "yes,"  or  any  other  set  indica- 
tion that  the  answer  is  satisfactory. 
Train  pupils  to  weigh  answers,  and  to 
learn  from  what  follows  whether  or  not 
the  answer  is  satisfactory. 
(2)  Lecturing: 

(a)  Give  a  brief  summary  outline  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  lecture  at  the  beginning. 
(6)  Outline  in  detail  the  argument  under  each 
large  point  in  the  lecture,  as  it  is  taken  up  in 
turn,  before  giving  the  illustrated  discussion  of 
the  argument. 

(c)  Take  each  detailed  point  in  the  argument  in 
turn  and  amply  illustrate  the  discussion. 

(d)  Have  all  charts,  drawings,  graphs,  and  ap- 
paratus of  any  sort  that  is  to  be  used  for  mak- 
ing demonstrations  fully  prepared  and  con- 
veniently arranged  for  use  at  the  proper  time. 
(Be  sure  to  test  apparatus  and  all  mechanical 
devices  near  enough  up  to  the  time  for  the  lec- 
ture to  know  that  they  will  work  satisfacto- 
rily.)- 

(e)  Require  pupils  to  take  down  the  summary  and 
the  important  detailed  points  of  the  argument 
and  at  times  to  hand  them  in  at  the  close  of  the 
lecture. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  167 

(/)  Stand  or  sit  in  a  commanding  position,  so  that 
every  member  of  the  class  can  see  and  hear 
distinctly  the  entire  lecture. 

(0)  Face  the  class  and  catch  the  various  physical 
reactions  and  facial  expressions  that  indicate 
the  attention  and  interest  of  the  pupils. 

(A)  Modulate  the  voice  and  regulate  the  force  of 
utterance  according  to  the  size  of  the  room  and 
the  size  of  the  class. 

(1)  Be  sure  that  graphs,  charts,  etc.,  are  placed  so 
that  every  member  of  the  class  can  see  easily. 
(Note.  —  Lecturing  in  elementary  and  high- 
school  classes  should  be  employed  chiefly  in 
making  demonstrations  in  science,  and  in  in- 
troducing supplementary  material  that  is  not 
readily  accessible  in  any  other  form.) 

c.  Carefully  testing  the  mechanics  of  devices  to  insure  suc- 
cess in  their  use. 

d.  Arranging  devices  conveniently  for  use  at  the  right  time. 

m.  As  to  technique 

1.  General  habits  that  apply  to  all  teaching.    The  following  items 
are  suggested : 

a.  In  reference  to  teaching: 

(1)  Thorough  preparation  for  each  day's   recitation. 
This  involves  the  mastery  of  the  subject-matter  to 
be  taught  and  a  detailed  plan  for  its  presentation. 

(2)  Promptness  in  beginning  and  closing  the  recitation. 

(3)  Correcting  the  errors  in  the  English  of  the  class. 

(4)  Addressing  questions  to  the  class  and  not  to  the 
book,  the  blackboard,  etc. 

(5)  Facing  the  class  when  explaining  or  discussing  a 
point. 

(6)  Requiring  the  pupils  to  do  most  of  the  reciting. 

(7)  Bringing  each  pupil  into  the  recitation  frequently  so 
as  to  give  all  an  equal  opportunity  and  to  stimulate 
interest. 

(8)  Requiring  each  pupil  to  recite  for  the  benefit  of  the 
whole  class. 

(9)  Sticking  to  the  lesson  and  not  being  sidetracked,  es- 


168  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

pecially  by  keen-witted  pupils  who  have  not  prepared 
their  lessons. 

(10)  Respecting  the  individuality  of  the  pupils. 

(11)  Modulating  the  voice  well;  enunciating  clearly;  using 
good  English. 

b.  In  reference  to  discipline: 

(1)  Holding  up  clearly  high  standards  of  conduct,  good 
order,  and  work. 

(2)  Deciding  quickly  and  acting  promptly. 

(3)  Meeting  pupils  in  personal  conferences  in  order  to 
bring  about  a  definite  understanding  with  them  as  to 
what  is  expected  of  them.     This  is  one  of  the  best 
ways  of  making  the  pupil  feel  his  responsibility  to  the 
school  and  also  of  establishing  a  close  friendly  tie  be- 
tween teacher  and  pupil. 

(4)  Seeing  and  hearing  everything  that  goes  on  hi  the 
room,  in  the  halls,  on  the  playground,  on  the  street, 
and  in  public  places  where  the  conduct  of  pupils 
should  be  observed. 

(5)  Dignified,  firm  bearing;  attitude  of  sureness  of  self 
and  just  what  is  going  to  be  done. 

(6)  Controlling  temper;  keeping  cool  in  emergencies. 

(7)  Alertness  and  accuracy  in  interpreting  the  acts  of 
pupils,  so  as  to  anticipate  their  conduct  and  to  start 
counter-suggestions  to  prevent  undesirable  behavior. 

(8)  Not  having  a  chip  on  the  shoulder;  not  supersensi- 
tive;  not  easily  upset  by  aggravating  things. 

(9)  Willingness  to  go  more  than  halfway  in  meeting  a 
pupil  who  is  being  disciplined. 

(10)  Looking  upon  the  misconduct  of  pupils  as  an  oppor- 
tunity to  do  a  piece  of  real  vital  work  in  education; 
remembering  that  it  is  the  character  of  the  individual 
and  not  personal  satisfaction  or  justification  that  is 
to  be  sought  in  discipline. 

(11)  Making  the  punishment  the  logical  consequence  of 
the  act. 

c.  In  reference  to  self: 

(1)  Regular  hours  for  all  activities;  conserving  one's  best 
energies  for  school  work. 

(2)  Not  letting  whims  or  peculiar  habits  interfere  with 
the  work. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  169 

(3)  Genuine  enthusiasm  for  the  subject  and  for  the  ado- 
lescent boys  and  girls. 

(4)  Sympathy  with  the  pupils  in  their  study  difficulties 
and  in  the  mental,  physical,  social,  and  domestic 
stresses  that  they  have  to  meet  each  day. 

(5)  Cheerfulness  and  optimism;  faith  in  the  final  results 
of  the  teacher's  work. 

(6)  Sincerity  and  straightforwardness;  not  affected  in 
speech  or  in  manners. 

(7)  Model  personal  habits;  moderation  in  dress;  good 
postures  in  sitting,  standing,  and  walking. 

(8)  Willingness  to  give  up  any  habit  that  may  mislead 
pupils,  or  that  may  mislead  the  public  in  forming  its 
opinion  as  to  a  teacher's  true  character  and  motives. 

d.  In  reference  to  the  classroom : 

(1)  Noting  the  temperature  at  the  beginning  and  during 
the  recitation. 

(2)  Noting  the  condition  of  the  air  at  the  beginning  of 
the  recitation  and  regulating  the  ventilation  so  as  to 
keep  the  condition  as  nearly  right  as  possible. 

(3)  Noting  the  light  at  the  beginning  and  during  the 
recitation,  and  regulating  it  by  proper  adjustment  of 
window  shades  and  other  means  that  may  be  avail- 
able. 

(4)  Noting  the  general  physical  condition,  such  as  ar- 
rangement of  chairs,  and  their  condition  as  to  dust, 
cuttings,  markings,  etc.,  cleanliness  of  floor  and  black- 
boards; position  and  condition  of  the  equipment, 
such  as  maps,  dictionary,  etc. 

(5)  Noting  the  physical  condition  of  students  as  to  dress, 
colds,  skin  eruptions,  etc. 

(6)  Seating  of  students  in  systematic  order,  but  so  as  to 
provide  for  individual  difficulties  in  hearing  and  see- 
ing, and  so  as  to  be  able  to  shift  the  class  from  their 
chairs  to  the  blackboard  with  facility;  seating  stu- 
dents so  as  to  avoid  disciplinary  problems. 

(7)  Keeping  the  teacher's  desk  in  neat,  orderly  condition. 
«.  In  reference  to  the  use  of  the  textbooks : 

(1)  Examining  the  textbook  thoroughly  from  preface  to 
index  before  attempting  to  make  assignments  from  it 
or  to  use  it  as  a  source  of  information. 


170  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

(2)  Mastering  the  author's  point  of  view  and  organiza- 
tion of  subject-matter  before  attempting  to  use  the 
book. 

(3)  Evaluating  the  materials  of  the  book  in  the  light  of 
textbook  standards  and  the  purposes  for  which  the 
subject  is  being  taught. 

(4)  Being  definite  and  very  specific  in  directing  the  pu- 
pils in  the  use  of  the  text  for  the  purpose  of  preparing 
lesson  assignments. 

(5)  Marking  for  the  class  at  the  beginning  of  the  course 
all  material  that  is  not  important. 

/.  In  reference  to  the  use  of  reference  works: 

(1)  Giving  author,  title  of  book,  title  of  chapters  to  be 
read,  topics,  and  pages. 

(2)  Giving  the  title  of  the  article,  author,  title  of  the 
magazine,  page,  month,  and  year. 

(3)  Giving  the  library,  the  room,  and  whatever  specific 
directions  that  will  enable  the  pupils  to  secure  the 
use  of  the  references,  without  loss  of  tune  and  energy. 

g.  In  reference  to  one's  superiors,  one's  colleagues,  and  the 
school  : 

(1)  Prompt  and  willing  performance  of  all  duties. 

(2)  Making  efficient  service  one's  chief  concern. 

(3)  Loyalty  to  the  ideals  and  policies  of  the  administra- 
tive forces. 

(4)  Loyalty  to  one's  fellow  teachers  in  their  work. 

(5)  Keeping  still  on  the  outside  of  school  concerning 
matters  that  are  discussed  in  teachers'  meetings  or 
the  office,  as  school  family  affairs. 

(6)  Boosting  the  school  as  a  whole;  boosting  the  work  of 
the  superintendent,  the  supervisors,  and  one's  fellow 
teachers. 

(7)  Loyal  support  to  musical,  literary,  and  athletic  or- 
ganizations and  enterprises. 

(8)  Active  participation  in  the  social  affairs  of  the  school. 

Choice  of  specific  habits  of  skill.  The  supervisor  should 
indicate  the  specific  habits  of  skill  that  are  particularly  effec- 
tive in  teaching  the  particular  subject.  Some  subjects  can 
be  taught  most  effectively  by  skilled  technique  in  the  art  of 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  171 

questioning.  Others  may  be  taught  well  by  use  of  lectures 
or  by  conversation.  And  still  others  may  be  taught  best 
by  skillfully  manipulated  apparatus  and  materials,  and  the 
efficient  management  of  a  laboratory,  etc.  Whatever  forms 
of  technique  are  most  effective  should  be  outlined  in  detail 
as  they  apply  to  the  teaching  of  the  subject-matter  of  the 
particular  subject. 

Definite  detailed  lesson  plans.  The  supervisor  can  safe- 
guard the  welfare  of  the  pupils  who  are  being  taught,  and 
further  the  training  of  the  teacher,  by  giving  the  beginning 
teacher,  or  the  teacher  beginning  the  teaching  of  a  new  or 
relatively  unfamiliar  subject,  definite  detailed  lesson  plans 
that  the  teacher  is  to  follow.  The  teacher  should  follow 
these  plans  carefully  and  thoroughly.  If  the  plans  are 
rightly  made,  the  teacher  should  be  able  to  accomplish  in 
each  recitation  the  work  that  has  been  laid  out  to  be  done. 
The  mastery  of  such  lesson  plans  involves  keen,  intelligent 
interpretation  of  the  meihod  involved,  the  devices  employed, 
and  the  technique  to  be  practiced.  The  teacher  who  can 
accurately  interpret  the  plans  of  the  expert  teacher  or  super- 
visor has  taken  the  first  step  toward  independence  in  making 
lesson  plans  on  his  own  initiative.  Intelligent  interpreta- 
tion must  be  followed  by  effective  technique  in  carrying  out 
the  plans. 

The  better  the  teacher  understands  the  plans,  the  more 
likely  will  he  be  to  carry  them  out  in  an  effective  and  thor- 
oughgoing way.  Therefore  the  study  and  teaching  of  les- 
sons according  to  excellent  plans  develops  insight  and  skill. 
The  teacher  may  soon  acquire  such  intelligent  insight  into 
the  nature,  extent,  and  form  of  effective  plans  for  teaching 
the  subject,  and  such  reliable  habits  in  carrying  out  definite 
detailed  plans,  that  he  can  be  entrusted  with  doing  his  own 
planning,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  supervisor.  The 
teacher  who  has  not  the  intelligence  to  interpret  and  follow 


172  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

the  carefully  worked-out  instructions  of  the  supervisor 
not  be  able  to  make  plans  of  his  own  that  will  be  effective. 

This  device,  then,  is  one  of  the  most  searching  tests  that 
can  be  applied  to  the  teacher  to  determine  his  possibilities 
at  the  earliest  period  possible  in  his  training.  The  teacher 
who  fails  in  this  regard  will  likely  fail  in  meeting  the  further 
tests  of  independence  and  initiative.  The  person  who  can- 
not exhibit  genius  in  carrying  out  a  set  piece  of  work  will  not 
have  the  genius  to  set  a  piece  of  work  to  carry  out. 

Differences  between  teachers.  Some  teachers  can  carry 
out  detailed  directions  that  have  been  set  for  them  better 
than  they  can  set  definite  directions  for  themselves  to  follow. 
Such  teachers  will  always  do  their  best  teaching  when  they 
are  working  under  close  supervision,  or  following  a  very 
detailed  course  of  study.  They  are  not  hindered,  however, 
by  the  following  of  expert  detailed  plans  for  a  number  of 
lessons  at  the  outset  of  their  teaching,  in  their  development 
toward  the  highest  degree  of  independence  and  initiative 
that  is  possible  for  them  to  attain.  They  will  be  able  by 
the  use  of  such  plans  to  pass  the  first  test  of  an  intelligent 
teacher,  and  to  prove  themselves  worthy  of  being  given 
further  opportunity.  They  may  fail  to  meet  the  test  satis- 
factorily when  thrown  upon  their  own  responsibility.  The 
fact  that  they  have  passed  only  the  first  test  in  a  satisfactory 
manner  enables  the  supervisor  to  classify  them  as  skilled  in 
interpretation  and  execution,  but  weak  in  initiative  and 
independent  organization.  Accurate  classification  of  teach- 
ers on  this  basis  will  enable  the  supervisor  to  make  an  intelli- 
gent statement  concerning  the  type  of  teaching  position  for 
which  the  particular  teacher  is  best  adapted. 

The  requirements  in  making  lesson  plans.  Two  types  of 
lesson  plans  should  be  required  of  teachers  who  teach  under 
close  supervision,  either  in  the  public  schools  or  in  a  training 
school.  The  first  type  is  the  weekly  lesson  plan.  The  pur- 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  173 

pose  of  the  weekly  lesson  plan  is  twofold;  namely,  to  train 
the  teacher  in  planning  ahead  work  that  can  actually  be 
done  thoroughly,  and  to  train  the  teacher  to  do  what  is 
planned  out  to  be  done.  The  weekly  lesson  plan  should  be 
gone  over  by  the  supervisor  and  revisions  suggested  before 
the  work  of  the  week  is  started. 

Two  forms  of  the  weekly  plan  may  be  used.  The  first 
form  should  be  for  the  work  planned  a  week  in  advance,  and 
the  second  form  should  be  for  the  work  actually  accom- 
plished during  the  same  week.  The  first  form  may  be  desig- 
nated as  the  A  blank,  and  the  second  as  the  B  blank.  These 
blanks  as  filled  out  by  the  teachers  should  be  kept  on  file  in 
the  supervisor's  office.  The  progress  of  the  teachers  will  be 
shown  by  the  lessening  difference  between  the  data  on  the 
A  and  B  blanks  for  the  same  week  until  they  are  practically 
identical.  The  accumulation  of  B  blanks  for  successive 
years  in  the  same  subject  will  afford  an  excellent  basis  for 
determining  the  quantity  of  subject-matter  that  can  be 
taught  in  the  subject  to  a  certain  age  or  grade  group  of 
pupils. 

Weekly  lesson  plans.  The  more  carefully  the  weekly 
plans  have  been  prepared,  the  more  reliable  they  will  be 
as  an  objective  basis  for  determining  the  unit  of  subject- 
matter.  A  reduced  copy  of  each  form  that  is  used  in  the 
University  of  Kansas  Training  School  is  given  herewith. 
The  actual  size  of  the  forms  is  nine  and  one  half  by  eight 
inches,  and  only  one  side  of  the  sheet  is  used. 

The  daily  lesson  plan.  These  represent  a  second  type  of 
plan,  and  should  be  worked  out  in  detail  and  submitted  for 
approval  before  the  recitation.  The  teacher  should  have 
time  to  make  any  revisions  that  seem  necessary  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  plans.  These  plans  should  be  made  in 
duplicate,  so  that  the  teacher  and  supervisor  may  each  have 
a  copy  during  the  progress  of  the  recitation.  The  super- 


174  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

WEEKLY  LESSON  PLAN 

(Form  A) 

UNIVERSITY  OF  KANSAS 
SCHOOL  OF  EDUCATION 

Work  Planned  for  the  Week 1919. 

A 
Subject Teacher 


Mon.. 


Tues.. 


Wed. 


Thur.. 


Fri.. 


Remarks : . 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  175 

WEEKLY  LESSON  PLAN 

(Form  B) 

UNIVERSITY  OF  KANSAS 
SCHOOL  OF  EDUCATION 
Work  Completed  for  the  Week. 1919. . . . 


B 

Subject Teacher. 


Mon.. 


Tues.. 


Wed. 


Thur.. 


Fri.. 


Remarks : . 


176  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

visor  should  give  the  teacher  a  definite  outline  to  follow  in 
making  the  daily  lesson  plans.  Such  an  outline  should  be 
inclusive,  so  that  no  items  will  be  omitted  that  ever  occur 
in  recitations.  The  teacher  should  understand  that  not  all 
of  the  items  on  the  outline  will  enter  into  every  day's  plan. 
Some  recitations,  however,  will  involve  all  of  the  items  to 
some  extent.  The  outline  should  be  practical  rather  than 
pedagogically  ideal.  The  following  plan  is  suggestive,  and 
has  been  found  to  be  usable  and  practical: 

DAILY  LESSON  PLAN 

Class  and  subject Teacher 

1.  Assignment  of  advance  lesson  —  Number  of  minutes. 

a.  At  beginning  or  close  of  period? 

b.  Outline. 

2.  Review  —  Number  of  minutes. 

a.  Ground  to  be  covered. 

b.  Definite  questions  or  outline. 

c.  Distributed  through  the  recitation,  or  all  at  one  time? 

3.  The  day's  lesson  —  Number  of  minutes. 

o.  Purpose. 

b.  Quizzing  the  preparation  of  the  pupils. 

(1)  Definite  questions  or  outline. 

c.  Development  of  points  that  the  study  of  the  pupils  war 
not  expected  to  give. 

(1)  Outline. 

(2)  Devices. 

d.  Introduction  of  new  or  supplementary  material. 

(1)  Outline. 

4.  Drill  —  Number  of  minutes. 

a.  Special  points  to  be  practiced. 

b.  Devices. 

c.  Materials. 

Value  of  daily  lesson  plans.  The  practice  of  making  de- 
tailed daily  lesson  plans  is  one  of  the  important  means  of 
training  teachers  to  accomplish  what  they  plan  to  do.  A 
great  deal  of  time  and  energy  is  lost  through  poor  teaching, 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  177 

and  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  poor  teaching  is  lack  of  defi- 
niteness.  The  teacher  who  plans  definitely  what  is  to  be 
done  during  a  recitation  and  holds  rather  strictly  to  the 
plan  will  refine  his  teaching  performance  many  fold.  He 
will  not  be  easily  sidetracked,  but  will  bring  everything  to 
bear  upon  accomplishing  what  he  set  out  to  do. 

Another  effect  of  the  practice  of  making  detailed  lesson 
plans  is  that  of  developing  the  habit  of  having  a  worth-while 
goal.  The  very  fact  that  one  attempts  to  work  out  a  defi- 
nite procedure  in  teaching  a  lesson  impels  him  to  have  a 
definite  goal  toward  which  he  will  work.  Therefore  the 
assignments  that  the  teacher  makes  will  become  more  and 
more  definite.  This  will  be  especially  true  if  the  teacher 
prepares  the  detailed  lesson  plan  for  teaching  the  lesson  be- 
fore the  assignment  of  that  lesson  is  made.  The  teacher 
who  plans  the  details  of  the  recitation,  before  making  the 
assignment  of  the  lesson,  will  not  be  so  likely  to  assign  too 
much  or  too  little  to  be  accomplished  in  the  recitation  period. 
The  more  definitely  the  teacher  has  planned  the  teaching  of 
the  assignment,  before  making  it,  the  more  definite  will  be 
his  instructions  to  the  pupils  in  directing  them  in  their  study 
of  the  assignment. 

Lesson  plans  do  not  lead  to  mechanical  work.  The  mak- 
ing of  detailed  lesson  plans  does  not  make  mechanical 
teachers.  The  teacher  who  follows  the  practice  soon  be- 
comes skilled  in  anticipating  the  reactions  of  the  pupils,  and 
will  find  little  need  for  modifications  of  the  planned  proced- 
ure during  the  recitation.  When  modification  is  needed, 
however,  the  teacher  who  has  worked  out  a  clear,  definite 
scheme  of  procedure  is  better  prepared  to  make  the  proper 
modification  in  the  face  of  the  recitation  situation.  In  the 
first  place,  the  teacher  has  something  definite  to  modify,  and 
can,  therefore,  make  a  definite  modification  to  meet  a  definite 
situation.  The  teacher  who  is  capable  of  making  an  intelli' 


178  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

gent,  detailed  plan  for  teaching  a  lesson  will  be  intelligent 
enough  to  make  intelligent  modifications  of  the  procedure 
as  the  recitation  situation  may  demand. 

The  practice  of  making  detailed  daily  lesson  plans  will  not 
make  the  reactions  of  the  pupils  mechanical  or  rob  them  of 
their  spontaneity.  In  other  words,  the  pupils  will  not  be 
sacrificed  for  the  plan.  The  teacher  plans  for  the  pupils  in 
making  her  program  of  procedure  in  teaching.  The  various 
possible  reactions  are  anticipated,  and  the  plan  undertakes 
to  set  up  a  scientific  psychological  handling  of  all  the  fac- 
tors involved  in  the  recitation,  so  that  a  definitely  attainable 
goal  may  be  most  effectively  reached.  The  more  definitely 
the  teacher  plans,  the  less  likely  he  will  be  to  lose  sight  of 
the  vital  interests  of  the  pupils. 

They  clarify  thinking  for  the  beginner.  Finally,  then, 
one  may  say  that  making  detailed  lesson  plans  clarifies 
one's  thinking  and  gives  a  perspective  of  teaching  problems 
that  cannot  be  got  in  any  other  way.  One  must  get  away 
from  the  generalities  of  pedagogical  principles,  and  get  down 
to  the  specific  details  of  actual  procedure  if  he  is  to  make  any 
progress  in  becoming  skilled  and  efficient  in  conducting  the 
recitation.  A  comprehension  of  general  laws  and  principles 
is  essential,  but  specific  applications  or  exhibitions  of  these 
laws  in  particular  acts,  in  the  teaching  of  particular  lessons, 
is  the  only  process  by  which  the  teaching  performance  can 
be  refined  and  rendered  effective.  The  teacher  who  thinks 
in  broad,  general  terms  of  pedagogy  in  planning  a  lesson  will 
not  discriminate  sharply  between  the  essentials  and  the  non- 
essentials.  Such  a  teacher  may  keep  in  the  general  direction 
and  may  make  a  good  deal  of  a  show  of  the  recitation  per- 
formance, but  he  never  knows  surely  and  accurately  when 
he  has  arrived.  On  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  who  com- 
mits his  pedagogical  ideals  to  definite  subject-matter  form, 
to  definite  forms  of  devices,  and  to  systematic  technique, 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  179 

will  know  quite  accurately  when  he  has  accomplished  a 
specific  piece  of  work. 

Relative  recitation  time  to  be  given  to  oral  and  to  written 
work.  This  varies  according  to  the  subject,  the  size  of  the 
class,  and  the  length  of  the  recitation.  Either  device  may 
be  used  too  exclusively  for  securing  the  best  results.  The 
tendency  to  fall  into  the  habit  of  relying  almost  entirely 
upon  the  one  form  or  the  other  makes  it  important  for  the 
supervisor  to  suggest  the  value  of  each  form  and  the  relative 
emphasis  that  should  be  given  each. 

Time  for  quizzes,  relative  number  and  character  of  ques- 
tions. The  time  for  holding  quizzes  may  vary  according  to 
the  amount  of  emphasis  that  the  supervisor  wishes  to  give 
to  this  phase  of  the  teacher's  work.  Short  quizzes  may  be 
held  at  the  completion  of  definite  phases  of  subject-matter. 
They  may  also  be  held  at  stated  periods,  such  as  every  six, 
nine,  twelve,  or  eighteen  weeks.  Whatever  practice  the 
supervisor  desires  to  have  followed,  he  should  indicate 
clearly  in  these  instructions  to  teachers. 

The  relative  number  of  questions  and  their  character 
should  also  be  indicated.  Teachers  tend  to  ask  too  many 
questions  for  the  length  of  time  the  pupils  have  to  write. 
They  also  tend  to  ask  questions  that  are  too  largely  memory 
tests.  The  character  of  the  questions  should  be  determined 
by  the  nature  of  the  subject,  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
being  taught,  the  maturity  of  the  pupils,  and  the  relative 
emphasis  that  has  been  placed  upon  content  material  and 
formal  material  in  presenting  the  subject. 

The  supervisor  should  also  indicate  the  procedure  in 
grading  quiz  papers.  This  should  be  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject  and  the  purpose  of  the  quiz.  If  the 
quiz  contains  different  types  of  questions,  such  as  memory 
questions,  reasoning  tests,  tests  of  application  of  principles, 
etc.,  it  is  likely  that  the  types  should  have  different  value 


180  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

on  the  basis  of  one  hundred  points  for  the  whole  quiz.  The 
amount  of  value  that  should  be  attached  to  the  form  of  the 
answer,  and  the  value  that  should  be  given  to  the  intelli- 
gence or  correctness  of  procedure,  should  be  definitely  de- 
termined and  indicated. 

Preparation  of  lessons.  The  length  of  time  that  the 
pupils  should  spend  in  the  preparation  of  the  different  types 
of  lessons,  such  as  the  lesson  demanding  the  mastery  of  new 
subject-matter,  and  the  lesson  demanding  practice  upon 
material  that  is  understood,  will  of  course  vary.  As  a  rule 
the  lesson  demanding  practice  upon  material  already  under- 
stood should  take  more  time  than  the  one  demanding  the 
mastery  of  new  subject-matter.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  pupils  are  better  prepared  to  carry  on  this  type  of  study, 
and  can  work  longer  with  less  danger  of  falling  into  errors  and 
becoming  discouraged.  The  lesson  demanding  mastery  of 
new  subject-matter  may  be  developed  very  largely  through 
the  recitation  period.  Therefore  the  preparation  for  such 
a  lesson  should  usually  demand  less  time,  but  more  concen- 
trated effort. 

Section  summary.  The  supervisor  should  begin  to  direct 
the  thinking  of  the  teacher  in  preparation  for  his  teaching 
performance  as  well  as  during  the  progress  of  his  teaching. 
The  fundamental  points  upon  which  the  teacher's  thinking 
should  be  directed  are:  The  important  distinctions  that  set 
off  method,  device,  and  technique  from  each  other;  the 
essential  characteristics  of  method,  device,  and  technique 
that  should  be  thoroughly  mastered;  the  making  of  weekly 
and  daily  lesson  plans;  the  relative  emphasis,  in  the  recita- 
tion, of  the  oral  and  written  work;  the  holding  of  quizzes; 
and  the  demands  upon  pupils  in  preparation  of  their  lessons. 
Carefully  prepared  detailed  outlines  are  the  most  economi- 
cal means  that  the  supervisor  can  use  in  accomplishing  this 
task  systematically. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  181 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Select  one  of  the  fundamental  elementary-school  subjects,  and  make 
an  outline  that  indicates  the  points  as  to  method,  devices,  and  tech- 
nique according  to  the  suggested  outline  given  in  this  chapter. 

2.  Make  an  outline  of  specific  habits  of  skill  that  apply  to  the  teaching 
of  the  subject  selected  under  1,  above. 

3.  Select  one  of  the  high-school  subjects,  and  make  an  outline  as  under  1, 
above. 

4.  Make  an  outline  of  specific  habits  of  skill  that  apply  to  the  teaching 
of  the  high-school  subject  under  3,  above. 

5.  Make  a  blank  form  that  you  would  recommend  to  teachers  for  use  in 
making  weekly  lesson  plans. 

6.  Criticize  the  daily  lesson-plan  form  given  in  the  chapter,  and  make 
a  form  that  you  think  would  be  more  helpful  to  the  teacher. 

7.  Select  one  elementary-school  subject,  and  determine  the  relative 
amount  of  time  that  should  be  given  to  oral  and  written  work  in  the 
daily  recitation. 

8.  Select  one  high-school  subject,  and  determine  the  relative  amount 
of  time  that  should  be  given  to  oral  and  written  work  in  the  daily 
recitation. 

9.  Make  an  outline  of  the  suggestions  that  you  would  give  the  teacher 
of  a  fifth-grade  arithmetic  class,  as  to  the  time  for  holding  quizzes, 
and  the  relative  number  and  the  character  of  quiz  questions. 

10.  Make  an  outline  of  the  suggestions  that  you  would  give  the  teacher 

of ,  a  high-school  subject,  as  to  the  time  for  holding  quizzes,  and 

relative  number  and  character  of  quiz  questions. 

11.  Select  an  elementary-school  subject,  and  determine  the  amount  of 
time  the  pupils  should  spend  in  the  preparation  of  a  specified  new 
subject-matter  lesson.     Determine  the  amount  of  time  that  should 
be  spent  in  preparation  of  a  lesson  on  practice  material  in  the  same 
subject. 

12.  Select  a  high-school  subject,  and  determine  the  amount  of  time  the 
pupils  should  spend  in  the  preparation  of  a  specified  new  subject- 
matter  lesson.     Determine  the  amount  of  time  that  should  be  spent 
in  preparation  of  a  lesson  on  practice  material  in  the  same  subject. 

2.  Supervised  study 

Supervised  study  is  used  here  to  mean  every  phase  of  the 
teacher's  work  that  aids  the  pupil  in  the  mastery  of  subject- 
matter,  formation  of  study  habits,  putting  forth  consistent 
effort  in  the  study  of  the  subject,  and  in  developing  power 
of  analysis,  technique  of  organization  of  subject-matter,  and 


182  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

ability  to  apply  knowledge  to  new  situations.  The  chief 
ways  in  which  the  teacher  may  effectively  supervise  the 
study  of  pupils  are  as  follows: 

The  recitation.  The  recitation  as  an  effective  means  of 
directing  the  study  of  pupils  should  involve  at  least  three 
important  items. 

1.  The  lesson  assignment.     The  assignment  of  the  lesson 
should  be  clear  and  definite.    The  assignment  should  enable 
the  pupils  to  know  what  to  do  and  how  to  go  about  it.    The 
pupils  should  be  required  to  take  full  notes  on  the  lesson 
assignment,  so  that  they  will  not  depend  upon  memory  for 
guidance  in  their  study.     The  assignment  should  include 
instructions  in  the  use  of  textbooks  and  other  helps  that  the 
pupils  should  use  in  the  preparation  of  the  lesson. 

The  definiteness  of  the  assignment  should  be  emphasized. 
The  pupils  should  have  clear-cut  problems  to  attack,  and 
they  should  realize  fully  what  they  are  to  accomplish  by 
their  study.  They  should  also  know  what  they  must  do  to 
accomplish  these  definite  results.  In  other  words,  the  as- 
signment should  indicate  the  procedure  that  really  consti- 
tutes study  of  the  subject-matter  assigned. 

2.  The  recitation  demands.     The  recitation  should  make 
such  demands  upon  the  pupils  that  they  will  be  compelled  to 
prepare  the  lesson  in  the  way  that  they  have  been  directed. 
This  means  that  the  recitation  must  deal  with  the  subject- 
matter  assigned  for  that  particular  recitation,  and  it  must 
be  dealt  with  in  the  way  that  the  assignment  indicated  it 
would  be  taken  up.     The  recitation  should  not  introduce 
new  demands  for  which  the  pupils  have  not  prepared.    This 
does  not  mean  that  new  points  may  not  be  developed,  but  it 
does  mean  that  the  development  of  new  points  must  demand 
the  use  of  the  preparation  that  was  made  in  studying  for  the 
recitation. 

One  important  item  is  that  the  recitation  should  keep 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  183 

up  with  the  assignments.  Teachers  sometimes  make  such 
erroneous  plans  for  their  assignments  that  they  keep  falling 
farther  behind  with  the  recitation  until  the  recitation  never 
gets  to  any  of  the  lesson  assigned  the  day  before,  and  even 
does  not  touch  on  any  of  the  lesson  assigned  two  days  be- 
fore. In  such  cases  the  teacher  usually  goes  on  assigning 
the  advance  lesson  as  if  the  recitations  were  keeping  right 
up  with  the  assignments.  The  result  of  such  a  condition 
is  that  the  pupils  soon  cease  to  study  the  assignment  with 
any  degree  of  seriousness.  They  do  not  know  when  they  will 
get  caught  up  with  the  game,  so  they  take  things  easily. 
Teachers  should  be  cautioned  against  falling  into  such  a 
habit.  They  should  be  advised  as  to  the  best  way  in  which 
to  extricate  themselves  in  case  they  do  get  caught  in  this 
unfortunate  situation.  Careful  study  of  the  proposition 
that  the  recitation  should  make  such  demands  upon  the 
pupils  that  they  must  study  in  the  way  that  they  have  been 
directed  will  enable  the  teacher  to  avoid  this  unfortunate 
situation. 

3.  Study  during  ilie  recitation.  The  recitation  should  be 
a  continued  study  of  the  subject,  rather  than  a  mere  quizzing 
for  facts  which  have  been  memorized  in  preparation  for  the 
recitation.  This  should  be  true  especially  when  the  recita- 
tion involves  the  study  of  new  subject-matter.  Some  reci- 
tations must  be  for  drill,  and  others  for  reviews.  Most 
recitations,  however,  that  demand  study  at  all  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils  should  be  genuine  group-study  periods  of  the 
cooperative  type.  This  idea  of  the  recitation  needs  to  be 
emphasized.  The  more  that  teachers  plan  to  use  the  reci- 
tation as  a  means  of  directing  the  study  of  the  pupils,  and 
of  leading  them  farther  into  the  subject-matter  than  the 
individual  study  of  the  pupils  will  take  them,  the  more  effec- 
tive the  teaching  will  be  and  the  better  the  study  habits  of 
the  pupils  will  be. 


184  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

One  important  point  that  can  and  should  be  brought  out 
in  the  study  recitation  is  that  of  indicating  clearly  to  the 
pupils  the  subject-matter  that  should  be  learned  and  memo- 
rized just  temporarily,  as  a  means  to  an  end  in  study,  and  the 
subject-matter  that  should  be  learned  permanently.  Pupils 
should  be  guided  in  their  memorizing  practices  so  that  each 
type  of  subject-matter  will  be  learned  most  economically. 
The  teacher  should  guide  the  study  of  the  pupils  in  such  a 
way  that  the  pupils  will  know  when  they  are  ready  to  spend 
time  upon  the  thorough  memorization  of  a  unit  of  perma- 
nent subject-matter.  Outlines  and  other  devices  should  be 
given  the  pupils  that  will  take  the  place  of  memorization 
during  the  development  of  the  unit  of  subject-matter  that 
is  to  be  permanently  memorized  after  it  has  been  thoroughly 
worked  out. 

Supervised  study  period.  Some  schools  have  adopted  a 
plan  of  double  periods  for  the  classes  in  which  they  desire  to 
carry  on  supervised  study.  The  teacher  conducts  recita- 
tion for  half  the  double  period,  and  guides  the  study  of  the 
same  group  for  the  other  half  of  the  period.  This  plan  as- 
sumes that  every  day  the  group  should  or  will  be  assigned  a 
lesson  that  requires  study  of  the  analytical,  interpretative 
sort.  Therefore  the  teacher  is  to  supervise  the  study  of  the 
lesson,  and  later  have  the  recitation  that  tests  the  results  of 
the  study.  If  the  suggestion  that  has  been  made  above  is 
followed,  namely,  that  the  recitation  should  be  a  continued 
study  of  the  lesson  rather  than  a  mere  testing  and  quizzing 
of  the  pupils  on  the  facts  studied,  the  supervised  study  period 
as  something  set  apart  from  the  recitation  will  be  unneces- 
sary. Whether  the  regular  recitation  period  is  utilized  for 
a  supervised  study  performance,  or  regular  periods  other 
than  the  recitation  are  set  aside  for  such  supervised  study, 
the  procedure  of  the  teacher  should  be  practically  the 
same. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  185 

The  following  outline  is  suggestive  of  the  technique  that 
may  be  practiced : 

Group  study. 

1.  Raise  specific  problems. 

2.  Suggest  relevant  subject-matter  that  will  aid  in  the  solution 
of  the  problems.     This  should  include  the  kinds  of  materials 
and  the  source  of  the  materials. 

8.  Suggest  means  of  sifting  and  selecting  relevant  facts,  princi- 
ples, laws,  etc. 

4.  Suggest  means  of  testing  and  verifying  results. 

5.  Indicate  subject-matter  that  is  to  be  used  purely  as  a  means 
and  subject-matter  that  is  to  be  learned  as  an  end. 

6.  Give  special  attention  to  individual  differences  that  are  due 
to: 

a.  Sex. 

b.  Age. 

c.  Stage  of  mental  and  physiological  development, 
rf.  Previous  t  raining  and  experience. 

e.  Influence  of  economic  and  social  conditions. 
/.  Status  of  health. 

Individual  study  conferences.  The  teacher  should  have 
individual  study  conferences  with  every  pupil  who  is  not 
getting  along  well  in  his  work.  These  conferences  should 
follow  some  definite  technique  of  procedure.  The  following 
suggestions  may  be  helpful: 

1.  Seek  out  particular  weaknesses. 

2.  Vary  the  point  of  attack  upon  subject-matter  to  meet  the  in- 
dividual needs  of  pupils. 

S.  Raise  specific  problems. 

4.  Suggest  relevant  subject-matter  that  will  aid  in  the  solution 
of  the  problems.     This  should  include  the  kinds  and  the 
sources  of  materials. 

5.  Suggest  means  of  sifting  and  selecting  relevant  facts,  princi- 
pies,  rules,  etc. 

0.  Suggest  means  of  testing  and  verifying  results. 

7.  Stimulate  initiative  and  secure  maximum  effort. 

8.  Indicate  subject-matter  that  is  to  be  used  purely  as  a  means, 
and  subject-matter  that  is  to  be  learned  as  an  end. 


186  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

9.  Give  special  attention  to  individual  differences  that  are  due 
to: 

a.  Sex. 

b.  Age. 

c.  Stage  of  mental  and  physiological  development. 

d.  Previous  training  and  experience. 

e.  Influence  of  economic  and  social  conditions. 
/.  Status  of  health. 

Make-up  work.  Teachers  should  have  a  definite  plan  for 
guiding  pupils  in  making  up  work  that  has  been  missed. 
The  following  items  are  suggestive  of  the  technique  that 
might  well  be  adopted. 

1.  Technique  in  handling  make-up  work  is  important  and  should 
involve: 

a.  A  definite  assignment  of  problems  and  materials. 

6.  A  definite  form  in  which  the  work  is  to  be  submitted. 

c.  A  definite  time  for  the  work  to  be  completed. 

d.  A  definite  means  of  testing  the  efficiency  of  the  work. 

The  teacher  should  have  an  ample  supply  of  supplemen- 
tary material  that  may  be  used  for  make-up  work  instead 
of  the  material  that  was  used  in  class  while  the  pupil  was 
absent.  The  same  problems  should  be  presented  and  the 
same  habits  and  skills  required  as  have  been  given  to  the 
class .  Presenting  the  same  problems  with  different  materials 
avoids  the  possibility  of  the  pupil's  copying  another  pupil's 
work  instead  of  really  making  the  work  up. 

Literature  on  study.  The  teacher  should  put  literature 
into  the  hands  of  the  pupils  which  gives  practical  informa- 
tion and  suggestions  as  to  habit  formation  and  self-govern- 
ment. Supplement  this  literature  with  a  definite  list  of 
habits  that  will  be  helpful  in  learning  how  to  study  the  par- 
ticular subject. 

Conferences.  Two  types  of  conference  are  suggested  as 
good  devices  for  keeping  in  close  contact  with  the  develop- 
ment of  teachers;  namely,  group  conferences  and  individual 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  187 

conferences.  Both  types  are  important  and  essential  to  good 
supervision.  The  technique  of  directing  these  conferences 
will  be  discussed  in  some  detail  in  Section  C. 

Training  in  use  of  standard  tests  and  scales.  Standard 
tests  and  scales  have  been  thoroughly  enough  established 
now  so  that  they  may  be  used  to  great  advantage  in  deter- 
mining pedagogical  problems.  The  use  of  such  tests  and 
scales,  however,  is  accompanied  by  certain  dangers  which 
can  be  avoided  only  by  a  thorough  understanding  of  the 
purpose  and  nature  of  these  tests. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  that  should  be  given 
careful  consideration  is  the  fact  that  anything  that  is  stand- 
ardized is  necessarily  limited  in  its  function.  A  standard  is 
designed  to  measure  a  certain  thing  and  nothing  else.  A 
standard  test  only  tests  that  for  which  it  has  been  designed; 
hence  it  must  not  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  other  things. 
The  silent-reading  tests,  for  example,  are  designed  to  test 
the  speed  and  accuracy  with  which  the  pupil  reads  assigned 
material.  They  do  not  test  the  pupil's  ability  to  appreciate 
and  enjoy  what  he  reads.  Neither  do  they  test  his  ability 
to  work  out  the  meanings  of  new  and  difficult  words,  and  to 
choose  appropriate  meanings  where  more  than  one  con- 
struction might  be  put  upon  the  words.  In  short,  these 
reading  tests  are  limited  to  measuring  just  a  small  part  of 
the  mental  results  that  training  in  reading  should  develop  in 
the  mind  of  the  pupil.  This  small  part  of  the  mental  re- 
sults is  highly  important,  however,  and  it  should  be  meas- 
ured in  the  thorough  way  that  these  tests  enable  it  to  be 
measured.  The  frequent  use  of  these  tests  will  enable  the 
teacher  to  locate  definitely  the  individual  needs  of  the  pu- 
pils in  silent  reading.  The  range  of  individual  differences 
in  this  respect  can  be  accurately  established,  and  this  will 
enable  the  teacher  to  distribute  his  time  and  energy  to  best 
advantage  in  bringing  all  the  pupils  up  to  the  desired  stand- 


188 

ard  of  efficiency.  Moreover,  the  use  of  the  tests  enables  the 
teacher  to  measure  the  relative  value  of  the  various  devices 
and  technique  that  he  may  employ  in  endeavoring  to  ac- 
complish the  desired  results. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  must  employ  other  means 
than  the  standard  silent-reading  tests  in  the  measuring  of 
the  other  mental  results  that  are  desirable  to  secure  in  read- 
ing. If  standard  tests  are  available  for  measuring  any  of 
these  other  results,  they  should  be  used  for  measuring  those 
particular  things,  but  if  no  such  tests  are  at  hand,  then  such 
unstandardized  means  as  experience  has  proved  best  must 
be  used. 

Value  of  tests  in  grading  and  promoting.  A  second  point 
that  is  of  great  importance  is  the  relative  value  of  the  stand- 
ard tests  and  the  unstandardized  tests  in  determining  the 
grading  and  promotion  of  pupils.  If  the  mental  results  that 
are  measured  by  the  standard  tests  are  the  most  important, 
then  the  tests  may  be  used  very  largely  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  promotions,  but  the  teacher  should  be  very 
sure  that  these  results  are  not  given  more  weight  than  they 
really  merit.  The  mental  results  that  have  as  yet  never 
been  standardized  may  be  the  most  important  ultimately, 
if  not  now,  and  they  should  be  duly  evaluated  in  determin- 
ing grades  and  promotions.  After  all,  it  is  only  the  formal 
aspects  of  training  that  best  lend  themselves  to  standardiza- 
tion. The  enriching,  the  broadening,  the  character-making 
aspects  of  education  are  much  more  difficult  to  standardize. 
Nevertheless,  as  ultimate  outcomes  of  education,  they  are 
more  important  than  any  form  of  standardized  habit  or  skill. 

Standardized  tests  and  standardized  skills.  What,  then, 
is  the  pedagogical  relation  that  should  exist  between  the 
standardized  skills  and  the  unstandardized  outcomes  of  edu- 
cation? The  relation  is  that  of  means  to  an  end.  The 
standardized  aspects  of  training  should  be  the  means  of 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  189 

furthering  the  unfonnalized  processes  of  mental  develop- 
ment. They  should  free  the  mind  of  the  learner  from  the 
consideration  of  its  formal  development  by  becoming  so 
thoroughly  habit  that  they  function  automatically.  The 
great  danger  is  that  these  standardized  aspects  of  training 
will  be  made  too  much  the  end  of  education,  and  that  so 
much  time  will  be  given  to  these  tools  for  their  own  sakes 
that  the  more  vital  issues  will  be  neglected.  In  other  words, 
the  danger  is  that  education  will  end  with  the  mastery  of 
formalized,  standardized  habits  and  skills  when  it  should 
just  be  beginning.  These  standardized  skills  must  be  mas- 
tered, and  the  standard  tests  are  the  best  means  yet  devised 
for  knowing  when  they  have  been  mastered  to  a  satisfactory 
degree,  but  education  to  be  highly  effective  must  always  go 
beyond  the  stages  of  attention  to  formal  things  for  their  own 
sakes. 

Some  knowledge  of  their  use  a  necessity.  Not  only 
teachers,  but  supervisors  and  administrators,  need  to  know 
the  limitations  of  the  functions  of  standard  tests.  The 
supervisor  can  be  greatly  aided  in  measuring  the  efficiency 
of  his  teachers,  in  respect  to  securing  results  hi  those  aspects 
of  education  that  can  be  formalized,  by  the  use  of  standard 
tests.  The  administrator  can  likewise  use  these  tests  in 
measuring  the  efficiency  of  his  school  system  hi  respect  to 
these  formal  aspects  of  education.  The  supervisor  can  de- 
termine definitely,  by  use  of  these  tests,  what  teachers  need 
most  help  in  dealing  with  the  standardized  phases  of  sub- 
ject-matter. The  administrator  can  use  the  tests  to  locate 
the  particular  schools  or  grades  in  his  system  that  are  weak- 
est in  respect  to  formal  training.  The  danger  is  that  the 
efficiency  of  teachers  and  the  efficiency  of  the  school  system 
as  a  whole  will  be  measured  too  much  by  the  results  secured 
by  the  administration  of  standard  tests,  whereas  these  tests 
should  be  used  to  discover  the  time  in  school  progress  at 


190  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

which  to  stress  the  other  aspects  of  education,  and  to  use 
other  valid  means  than  these  tests  in  measuring  the  effi- 
ciency of  teachers  and  the  efficiency  of  the  system  as  a  whole 
in  attaining  the  more  vital  outcomes  of  education. 

Skill  in  using  standard  tests  and  scales  should  be  made  an 
important  part  of  every  teacher's  training.  The  technique 
of  administering  these  tests  can  be  acquired  only  through 
actual  practice.  Ample  opportunity  for  such  practice 
should  be  provided,  and  it  should  be  carried  on  under  very 
careful  supervision  until  the  desired  skill  has  been  attained. 
The  results  secured  should  be  utilized  to  the  fullest  possible 
extent  in  locating  individual  needs,  and  in  measuring  the 
value  of  the  various  devices  and  the  forms  of  technique  em- 
ployed in  the  teaching  of  the  subjects  hi  which  the  tests  are 
given. 

Section  summary.  The  teacher  should  be  trained  to  di- 
rect the  study  of  his  pupils  chiefly  through :  definite,  clearly 
understood  lesson  assignments;  recitation  demands  that 
utilize  and  capitalize  the  preparation  the  pupils  have  been 
directed  to  make;  and  making  most  recitations  a  continued 
study  of  the  lesson.  Where  a  separate  period  is  used  for 
supervised  study,  the  teacher  should  master  the  technique 
of  directing  group  study.  The  technique  of  directing  in- 
dividual study  through  personal  conferences  should  be  mas- 
tered, and  this  should  include  a  definite  plan  for  handling 
make-up  work.  The  teacher  should  place  literature  on 
How  to  Study  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  an  outline  that  will  help  the  teacher  in  making  lesson  assign- 
ments definite  and  clearly  understood. 

2.  Make  out  in  detail  lesson  assignments  in  two  or  more  elementary- 
school  subjects,  in  keeping  with  your  outline. 

8.  Make  out  in  detail  lesson  assignments  in  two  or  more  high-school  sub- 
jects, in  keeping  with  your  outline. 
4.  Give  detailed  suggestions  as  to  the  demands  in  the  recitations  in 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DEVICES  191 

geography,  arithmetic,  and  reading  that  would  compel  the  pupils  to 
study  in  the  way  they  were  directed,  in  order  to  get  along  well  in  the 
recitation. 

5.  Give  detailed  suggestions  as  to  the  recitation  demands  that  you  would 
make  in  high-school  classes  in  history,  algebra,  Latin,  English  litera- 
ture, and  one  of  the  sciences,  in  order  to  control  the  kind  of  study 
preparation  made  by  the  pupils. 

6.  Make  a  detailed  study  recitation  plan  for  a  lesson  in  one  of  the  ele- 
mentary-school subjects. 

7.  Make  a  detailed  study  recitation  plan  for  a  lesson  in  one  of  the  high- 
school  subjects. 

8.  Criticize  the  suggested  outline  given  in  the  chapter  for  the  direction 
of  group  study,  as  to  definiteness  of  organization,  completeness  or 
excessiveness  of  details,  formalism,  etc.    Try  to  improve  the  outline 
for  your  own  use. 

9.  Criticize  the  outline  for  individual  conferences,  and  make  a  more 
usable  plan. 

10.  Select  an  elementary-school  subject,  and  make  a  definite  detailed  plan 
for  handling  make-up  work  in  it. 

11.  Select  a  high-school  subject,  and  make  a  definite  detailed  plan  for 
handling  make-up  work  in  it. 

12.  Select  two  or  more  books  on  How  to  Study  that  would  be  suitable 
to  place  in  the  hands  of  high-school  pupils. 

IS.  Make  a  set  of  instructions  that  you  would  recommend  for  grade 

pupils,  to  aid  them  in  studying  all  lessons. 
14.  Make  a  set  of  instructions  for  one  subject  that  you  would  recommend 

for  grade  pupils  to  aid  them  in  preparing  lessons  in  that  subject. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES  FOR  SECTION  B 
Betts,  Geo.  Herbert.     The  Recitation. 

Good  discussions  of  methods,  devices,  and  technique  of  recitation. 

Belts,  Geo.  Herbert.     Classroom  Method  and  Management. 

Much  helpful  data  on  organization  of  subject-matter  in  elementary-school  subjects. 

Breed,  Frederick  S.     "  Measured  Results  of  Supervised  Study,"  in  School 
Review,  March  and  April,  1919. 

Gives  experimental  data  and  valuable  conclusions. 

Hall-Quest,  Alfred  L.     Supervised  Study. 

Important  discussions  of  principles,  practices,  and  good  account  of  experimental  data. 

Hall-Quest,  Alfred  L.     The  Textbook. 

Good  discussion  of  standards  for  judging  textbooks  and  suggestions  as  to  their  u«e. 

Jones,  L.  H.     "The  Relation  of  Observation  to  Practice  Teaching  in  the 
Preparation  of  the  Young  Teacher";  in  Proc.  N.E.A..  1908,  pp.  728-32. 
Makes  helpful  distinction  between  observation  and  practice  teaching. 

Maxwell,  C.  R.     The  Observation  of  Teaching. 

Good  discussion  of  the  details  of  observation  with  helpful  outline*. 


192  DEVICES  OF  SUPERVISION 

McMurry,  Frank.    How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study. 
A  very  readable  and  valuable  book. 

Monroe,  W.  S.     Measuring  the  Results  of  Teaching. 

Very  valuable  to  the  teacher  as  a  description  of  the  use  and  importance  of  the  stand* 
ard  tests. 

Sandwick,  Richard  L.    How  to  Study  and  What  to  Study. 

Discussion  of  "  What  to  Study  "  especially  helpful  to  pupils. 

U.S.  Bureau  of  Education.     Practice  Teaching  for  Teachers  in  Secondary 
Schools.     Bulletin  29,  1917. 

See  particularly  page  41  for  a  brief  description  of  completely  organized  system*  of 
practice  teaching. 

Watt,  H.  J.     Economy  and  Training  of  Memory. 
Contains  excellent  summary  of  rules. 

Whipple,  G.  M.     How  to  Study  Effectively. 

Excellent  discussion  of  principles,  and  good  summary  of  rules. 


SECTION  C 
TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

CHAPTER  XIII 

PRINCIPLES  UNDERLYING  THE  SELECTION  OF 
TECHNIQUE 

The  purpose  of  supervision.  That  the  supervisor  exists 
for  the  sake  of  the  teachers  who  work  under  his  direction, 
and  for  the  sake  of  the  pupils  who  work  under  the  direction 
of  the  teachers,  may  be  stated  as  the  first  important  prin- 
ciple in  good  supervision.  This  is  a  fundamental  point  of 
view,  and  every  supervisor  who  holds  this  point  of  view  will 
render  more  efficient  service  than  he  could  otherwise  do. 
Supervisors  too  often  look  upon  teachers  and  pupils  as  a 
means  of  exploiting  their  ideas  about  the  teaching  of  their 
particular  line  or  lines  of  work.  They  seek  to  show  off  their 
own  performance  and  to  attract  attention  to  themselves. 
The  progress  of  the  teachers  under  his  direction  should  be 
the  immediate  concern  of  the  supervisor,  and  indirectly  the 
progress  of  the  pupils  being  taught  by  these  teachers. 

This  might  be  stated  just  the  opposite  way  and  yet  the 
meaning  remain  the  same.  That  is  to  say,  the  supervisor 
is  interested  directly  in  the  progress  of  the  pupils  being 
taught,  and  indirectly  in  the  progress  in  teaching  of  the 
teachers  who  are  teaching  pupils.  In  other  words,  the  su- 
pervisor cannot  secure  the  progress  desired  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils  being  taught  without  securing  the  desired  prog- 
ress in  teaching  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  being  supervised. 
Therefore  the  efforts  of  the  supervisor  should  be  centered 
upon  the  teaching  performance  of  the  teacher  primarily  as  a 


194  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

means  of  accomplishing  definite  desired  results.  Keep  the 
teacher  in  the  foreground,  then,  should  be  the  motto  of  the 
supervisor. 

This  point  of  view  gives  the  supervisor  a  large  responsibil- 
ity in  the  training  and  directing  of  the  teachers.  The  suc- 
cess or  failure  of  the  teachers  is  to  a  considerable  extent  the 
success  or  failure  of  the  supervisor.  The  supervisor  should 
make  the  teachers  realize  at  the  outset  that  he  is  there  for 
the  purpose  of  helping,  and  that  their  interests  are  mutual. 
The  teachers  should  be  encouraged  to  regard  the  presence 
and  efforts  of  the  supervisor  as  an  opportunity  for  them  in 
becoming  more  efficient  and  successful  as  teachers.  They 
should  feel  free  to  consult  the  supervisor  at  any  and  all 
times,  and  upon  any  phase  of  their  work  upon  which  they 
feel  the  need  of  assistance.  In  other  words,  the  teachers 
should  be  made  to  feel  that  they  should  study  diligently  to 
discover  the  ways  in  which  the  supervisor  can  serve  them 
most. 

Supervision  to  develop  independence  and  efficiency. 
That  every  act  of  the  supervisor  should  be  for  the  purpose 
of  making  the  teachers  under  his  direction  independent  and 
efficient,  may  be  stated  as  the  second  fundamental  principle 
in  good  supervision.  One  of  the  prime  objects  is  to  develop 
independence  on  the  part  of  the  teachers.  This  independ- 
ence must  come  through  the  formation  of  right  habits  and 
the  acquisition  of  skill  in  applying  these  habits  to  the  prob- 
lems of  teaching.  The  supervisor  must  not  let  his  technique 
of  supervision  get  in  the  way  of  the  process  of  developing  in- 
dependence and  initiative  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  under 
him.  The  teachers  must  not  only  become  independent  and 
acquire  the  habit  of  taking  the  initiative,  but  they  must  be 
efficient  and  reliable  in  their  independence. 

Teachers,  though,  may  easily  initiate  ideas  that  will  not 
lead  to  good  results.  Therefore  the  supervisor  is  responsi- 


THE  SELECTION  OF  TECHNIQUE  195 

ble  for  the  development  of  reliability  of  judgment  as  well  as 
the  habit  of  initiative.  In  other  words,  the  habit  of  under- 
taking new  experiments  to  meet  situations  —  that  is,  initia- 
tive —  must  be  checked  by  the  practice  of  proceeding  upon 
some  definitely  accurate  basis  that  is  significant.  The 
teachers  must  not  be  encouraged  to  dash  into  things  spon- 
taneously in  order  to  exhibit  initiative  and  originality.  The 
technique  of  the  supervisor  should  tend  to  develop  the  relia- 
ble type  of  initiative  and  dependable  independence  rather 
than  the  spontaneous  trial-and-error  sort  of  independence 
and  haphazard  form  of  initiative  that  undertakes  new 
things,  but  seldom  makes  anything  out  of  them  that  is 
worth  while. 

Constructive  work  a  necessity.  That  the  technique  of 
the  supervisor  should  be  constructive,  and  not  destructive, 
may  be  stated  as  the  third  fundamental  principle  hi  good 
supervision.  This  is  of  fundamental  importance,  and 
should  be  followed  in  selecting  the  technique  of  the  super- 
visor. It  is  likewise  one  of  the  most  difficult  principles  to 
follow.  All  criticism  tends  to  be  destructive.  One  must 
not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  often  before  one  can  build  one 
must  destroy  that  which  stands  in  the  place  of  what  is  to  be 
built.  Destruction,  therefore,  may  be  the  preliminary  step 
of  real  constructive  procedure.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  de- 
struction of  the  undesirable  is  brought  about  best  by  the 
substitution  of  the  desirable.  In  other  words,  the  processes 
of  destruction  and  construction  are  simultaneous,  instead  of 
consecutive  or  alternative. 

A  really  destructive  criticism,  then,  would  be  one  that 
merely  destroys  or  attacks  an  existing  practice  without  sub- 
stituting anything  in  its  place.  Such  criticism  is  never  help- 
ful, and  never  has  a  good  effect  upon  the  relations  between 
supervisor  and  teachers.  Such  a  destructive  procedure  is 
not  only  not  helpful,  but  it  is  even  dangerous  for  the  super- 


196  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

visor.  The  supervisor  who  finds  fault,  picks  flaws,  and  cen- 
sures without  showing  clearly  the  practice  that  should  be 
followed,  and  without  showing  what  the  results  of  better 
practice  would  be,  will  soon  lose  the  confidence  of  his  teach- 
ers. Any  one  can  find  fault,  but  who  can  show  how  to  mend 
the  defect?  That  is  the  critical  point  for  the  teacher,  and 
the  supervisor  should  practice  such  technique  as  to  meet 
this  critical  test  fairly  and  satisfactorily. 

Supervisory  technique  not  unvarying.  That  the  tech- 
nique of  supervision  should  be  modified  to  meet  the  varying 
conditions  under  which  the  work  of  supervision  is  carried 
on  is  a  fourth  important  principle  of  supervision.  No  act  of 
technique  is  in  and  of  itself  either  good  or  bad.  The  value 
of  each  act  must  be  measured  by  the  conditions  under  which 
it  is  put  forth  and  the  character  of  the  results  secured.  In 
other  words,  the  supervisor  should  select  his  technique  in 
keeping  with  the  satisfactory  outcome  of  his  performance, 
and  not  according  to  some  preconceived  notion  of  what 
ought  to  constitute  good  technique.  If  the  supervisor  puts 
forth  acts  merely  because  they  conform  to  some  concept 
that  he  has  of  how  the  work  should  be  done,  but  fails  to 
modify  his  performance  in  the  face  of  unsatisfactory  results, 
he  will  look  upon  his  work  as  being  well  done,  and  with  per- 
fect complacency  he  will  lay  the  cause  of  failure  to  obtain 
desired  results  to  other  factors,  elements,  or  conditions  than 
his  own  acts.  Since  his  own  acts  were  religiously  performed, 
and  with  a  regularity  and  definiteness  that  are  practically 
perfect,  he  is  apt  to  feel  that  the  unsatisfactory  results  can- 
not possibly  be  due  to  such  seemingly  perfect  technique. 
Therefore,  instead  of  looking  about  for  new  points  hi  tech- 
nique that  may  possibly  remedy  the  situation,  the  super- 
visor shifts  the  responsibility  upon  the  teachers  supervised, 
or  upon  conditions,  etc. 

The  technique  of  supervision  should  be  economical.  This 


THE  SELECTION  OF  TECHNIQUE  197 

may  be  given  as  a  fifth  important  principle  in  the  supervi- 
sion of  instruction.  The  acts  of  the  supervisor  in  directing 
the  work  of  teachers  should  be  of  such  a  character  that  they 
will  enable  him  to  accomplish  a  maximum  of  results  with  a 
minimum  of  time  and  energy.  This  economy  of  time  and 
energy  must  be  measured  by  the  ultimate  results  of  the  su- 
pervisor's work,  and  not  merely  by  the  immediately  obvious 
results.  Immediate  results  that  are  good  usually  lay  the 
foundation  for  ultimate  results  that  are  satisfactory;  there- 
fore technique  that  secures  excellent  immediate  results  is  for 
the  most  part  fundamentally  correct.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  immediate  results  may  be  meager  or  even  unsatisfactory, 
and  yet  the  technique  practiced  prove  eventually  to  have 
been  correct  because  of  the  ultimate  results  that  were  not 
apparent  from  the  immediate  outcome  of  the  supervising 
activities.  Ultimate  results  are  the  final  test,  for  they  bear 
fruit  after  the  activities  of  the  supervisor  are  no  longer  car- 
ried on  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the  teacher  and  the 
efforts  of  the  pupils.  Therefore,  in  selecting  technique  on 
the  basis  of  its  economy,  the  determining  criterion  should  be 
the  ultimate  results  of  the  supervising  activities,  and  these 
results  must  be  established  by  experience  rather  than  by 
mere  theory. 

Chapter  summary.  The  supervisor  exists  for  the  sake  of 
his  teachers;  hence  he  should  make  every  act  further  their 
independence  and  efficiency.  His  technique  should  always 
be  constructive  instead  of  destructive,  and  modified  to  meet 
the  conditions  under  which  the  supervision  is  carried  on, 
and  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  the  technique  most  effective 
and  economical. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Give  three  or  more  cases,  from  your  experience,  in  which  the  super- 
visor did  not  exist  for  the  sake  of  his  teachers. 

2.  Give  three  or  more  cases,  from  your  experience,  in  which  the  super* 
visor  did  exist  for  the  sake  of  his  teachers. 


198  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

8.  Give  two  or  more  examples,  from  your  experience,  in  which  the 
supervisor  made  his  teachers  independent. 

4.  Give  two  or  more  examples,  from  your  experience,  in  which  the  super- 
visor stifled  the  independence  of  his  teachers. 

5.  Give  five  illustrations  of  destructive  criticism  of  teaching  perform- 
ances. 

6.  Give  five  illustrations  of  constructive  criticism  of  teaching  perform- 
ances. 

7.  Give  five  illustrations  of  how  the  same  point  of  technique  may  be 
good  in  one  situation  and  bad  in  another. 

8.  Give  two  or  more  cases,  from  your  experience,  in  which  the  technique 
of  the  supervisor  was  not  economical. 

9.  Give  two  or  more  examples,  from  your  experience,  of  economical 
technique  in  supervision. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
SELECTED  FORMS  OF  TECHNIQUE 

Technique  and  devices.  The  discussion  of  technique  will 
involve  some  discussion  of  devices  which  are  so  closely  in- 
volved hi  the  technique  itself  as  to  be  difficult  to  treat  sepa- 
rately and  yet  be  practical.  These  devices  were  omitted 
under  the  regular  discussion  of  devices  in  order  to  avoid 
needless  repetition.  In  like  manner  and  for  the  same  pur- 
pose some  degree  of  discussion  of  technique  was  given  in  the 
discussion  of  devices.  Some  few  phases  of  devices  and  tech- 
nique have  necessarily  been  given  under  both  discussions. 
This  fact,  however,  will  merely  serve  to  emphasize  their  im- 
portance. In  actual  practice  the  supervisor  must  practice 
good  technique  in  manipulating  devices,  and  he  must  em- 
ploy good  devices  that  enable  him  to  execute  efficient  tech- 
nique. In  other  words,  sometimes  the  technique  must  be 
adapted  for  the  sake  of  securing  the  best  results  from  the 
device,  but  for  the  most  part  the  device  exists  for  the  sake  of 
the  technique. 

1.  Visiting  the  teacher  at  work 

The  supervisor  must  visit  the  teacher  at  work  in  the  class- 
room in  order  to  become  acquainted  with  his  strong  points 
and  his  weaknesses.  This  aspect  of  the  supervisor's  work 
presents  several  important  problems.  These  will  be  taken 
up  in  order  and  discussed  in  some  detail. 

When  should  the  supervisor  begin  visiting?  The  teacher 
is  given  charge  of  the  class,  and  is  now  to  be  held  responsible 
for  conducting  it  for  a  definite  period  of  time.  The  super- 
visor has  given  the  teacher  full  instructions  concerning  the 


200  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

various  duties  that  he  is  to  perform,  and,  let  us  suppose,  has 
also  placed  detailed  lesson  plans  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher 
to  guide  his  work  for  the  first  few  days.  Now  comes  the 
question  as  to  whether  the  supervisor  shall  begin  visiting 
from  the  very  outset,  or  shall  stay  away  for  a  day  or  two 
and  give  the  teacher  some  opportunity  to  get  the  situation 
somewhat  in  hand  so  that  he  will  not  feel  so  self-conscious 
when  the  supervisor  is  present. 

This  question  may  be  answered  satisfactorily  by  weighing 
all  the  factors  that  should  be  considered  in  deciding  that  the 
teacher  is  ready  to  take  up  the  active  work  of  managing  and 
teaching  a  class.  Presumably  the  teacher  should  be  able  to 
get  along  for  a  few  days  without  the  presence  of  the  super- 
visor. If  the  teacher  cannot  be  trusted  to  this  extent,  there 
is  certainly  a  large  question  as  to  the  advisability  of  putting 
him  in  charge  of  a  class  at  all.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
teacher  is  capable  of  handling  the  class  independently  and 
without  danger  of  serious  results  for  the  class,  then  the 
teacher  cannot  be  seriously  disturbed  by  the  presence  of  the 
supervisor  from  the  very  first  day.  The  actual  facts  are 
that  practically  everything  depends  upon  the  personality 
and  attitude  of  the  supervisor  and  the  temperament  of  the 
teacher.  Some  teachers  find  it  very  difficult  ever  to  become 
accustomed  to  visitors  of  any  character  whatsoever.  Such 
teachers  will  always  feel  more  or  less  self-conscious  when- 
ever the  supervisor  is  present  in  the  classroom.  Again, 
some  teachers  feel  perfectly  free  hi  the  presence  of  one  super- 
visor, and  are  badly  flustered  and  ill  at  ease  in  the  presence 
of  another  supervisor.  How,  then,  shall  the  answer  to  the 
question  be  determined? 

Answer  in  the  light  of  purpose.  Every  supervisor  must 
settle  this  question  in  the  light  of  ah1  the  facts  in  each  case. 
The  suggestion  that  seems  valid,  however,  is  that  the  more 
visiting  the  supervisor  does,  the  better  it  is  for  both  super- 


SELECTED  FORMS  OF  TECHNIQUE  201 

visor  and  teacher.  The  more  they  work  together,  the  better 
they  will  come  to  understand  one  another  and  to  appreciate 
one  another's  individual  characteristics.  The  more  timid 
and  self-conscious  the  teacher  is,  the  more  he  needs  to  be 
visited  in  order  that  he  may  have  ample  opportunity  to 
overcome  his  weakness.  The  time  that  the  supervisor  has 
charge  of  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  all  too  short  at  best,  and 
every  day  that  passes  is  that  much  opportunity  gone  for- 
ever. Therefore  the  logical  time  to  begin  visiting  the  work 
of  the  teacher  is  the  very  first  recitation  that  the  teacher 
conducts.  The  visits  should  be  for  the  whole  period,  and 
they  should  continue,  as  time  permits,  until  the  teacher  has 
thoroughly  mastered  the  situation.  The  visits  may  then  be 
less  frequent,  but  they  should  continue  to  be  relatively  fre- 
quent, as  long  as  there  is  possibility  of  assisting  the  teacher 
in  overcoming  faults  and  in  establishing  new  habits  of  effi- 
cient teaching.  The  main  point  for  the  supervisor  to  keep 
in  mind  is  that  the  performance  of  supervision  must  seek  al- 
ways to  further  the  development  of  the  teacher,  and  never 
to  really  get  in  the  way  of  this  development.  That  is  to  say, 
all  things  considered,  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  under  the 
teacher  should  be  better  off  because  of  the  presence  of  the 
supervisor  in  the  classroom  during  the  recitation. 

Entering  the  classroom.  The  supervisor  often  has  to  en- 
ter the  classroom  after  the  beginning  of  the  recitation.  He 
should  enter  in  such  a  manner  as  to  attract  as  little  atten- 
tion as  possible.  The  supervisor  should  not  intentionally 
become  the  center  of  attraction  as  soon  as  he  enters  the 
room.  The  writer  has  seen  a  supervisor  come  bustling  into 
the  room,  hi  the  midst  of  a  recitation,  interrupt  the  whole 
procedure  to  say,  "Good-morning,  boys  and  girls,"  and 

"  Good-morning,  Miss  X ."     Then  would  follow  a  few 

minutes  of  animated  consultation  with  the  teacher  or  some 
gtagy  fussing  around  the  teacher's  desk  before  finally  set- 


tling  down  and  allowing  the  teacher  to  go  on  with  the  work 
that  had  been  interrupted. 

Presumably  the  only  justification  for  such  a  cyclonic  per- 
formance was  an  attempt  to  create  a  social  situation  and 
teach  the  children  good  manners.  The  real  effect,  however, 
was  that  of  making  it  apparent  to  every  one  that  the  super- 
visor had  arrived,  and  his  majestic  presence  must  be  prop- 
erly greeted  and  recognized  before  the  work  in  hand  could 
proceed  properly.  His  show  of  enthusiasm  and  his  fussing 
around  before  the  pupils  were  all  for  effect.  He  wished  to 
seem  important  and  to  make  his  visit  seem  to  contribute 
immediately  something  noticeable  to  the  life  of  the  school. 
The  real  fact  is  that  he  contributed  little  else  than  a  diver- 
sion. Diversions  may  be  good  things  occasionally,  but 
much  better  devices  than  well-paid  supervisors  could  be  em- 
ployed to  create  highly  interesting  diversions. 

Position  of  the  supervisor  in  the  classroom.  The  super- 
visor should  sit  in  an  inconspicuous  place  in  the  classroom, 
but  so  as  to  be  able  to  observe  both  the  teacher  and  the  en- 
tire class.  Rooms  that  are  to  be  visited  regularly  by  super- 
visors should  have  desk  chairs  conveniently  placed  for  them 
These  should  usually  be  in  the  rear  of  the  room,  but  they 
may  be  near  the  front  if  the  rooms  are  so  arranged  that  the 
passing  to  the  rear  would  attract  more  attention  than  would 
otherwise  be  the  case.  Most  schoolrooms  are  so  arranged 
as  to  have  an  entrance  at  the  rear  from  a  cloakroom  or  hall. 
When  this  is  the  case  the  supervisor  can  easily  enter  quietly 
at  the  rear  and  attract  no  attention  other  than  that  the 
pupils  become  aware  that  he  is  present.  The  supervisor 
should  not  sit  at  the  teacher's  desk  unless  he  intends  to  con- 
duct the  recitation,  and  has  come  primarily  for  that  purpose. 
The  reason  is  obvious.  The  supervisor  at  the  teacher's  desk 
is  more  conspicuous  than  the  teacher,  and  pupils  cannot  give 
undivided  attention  to  the  work  of  the  recitation.  More- 


SELECTED  FORMS  OF  TECHNIQUE  203 

over,  the  teacher  is  placed  in  an  awkward  position,  and  finds 
it  difficult  to  offset  the  feeling  that  the  supervisor  has  as- 
sumed a  critical  attitude  and  a  judicial  air.  The  teacher 
cannot  help  feeling  that  he  is  on  trial  before  the  high  court. 
Not  all  teachers  would  feel  this  embarrassment,  and  not  all 
supervisors  would  create  such  an  impression,  no  matter 
where  they  sat  during  the  recitation,  but  many  teachers  will 
feel  this  embarrassment;  hence  the  best  plan  is  to  follow  a 
technique  that  precludes  the  forceful  suggestiveness  that 
comes  from  taking  the  seat  of  authority  in  the  classroom. 

When  the  supervisor  sits  in  the  rear  of  the  room,  or  in 
some  equally  inconspicuous  place,  the  teacher  is  made  to 
feel  that  the  supervisor  is  for  the  time  being  a  member  of 
the  class.  The  teacher  in  presenting  the  lesson  to  the  pupils 
is  also  presenting  it  to  the  supervisor.  Moreover,  the  super- 
visor and  teacher  can  develop  a  sort  of  team  work  that  will 
enable  them  to  communicate  with  each  other  without  the 
pupils  being  aware  of  the  fact.  For  example,  the  room  may 
need  a  little  ventilating,  or  adjustment  of  light,  etc.  The 
teacher  may  not  notice  these  items  until  a  glance  from  the 
supervisor  directs  his  attention  to  them.  The  teacher  can 
then  tactfully  look  after  them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  create 
the  least  possible  disturbance,  and  so  lose  the  least  possible 
time.  Other  suggestions  may  also  be  conveyed  to  the 
teacher  without  attracting  the  attention  of  the  pupils.  The 
possibilities  of  utilizing  the  place  in  the  room  to  direct  the 
recitation  in  this  way  should  not  be  neglected  by  super- 
visors. 

Leaving  the  room.  The  supervisor  often  finds  it  neces- 
sary to  leave  the  room  before  the  end  of  the  recitation  pe- 
riod. Whenever  this  is  the  case,  the  supervisor  should  with- 
draw in  such  a  manner  as  to  attract  as  little  attention  as 
possible.  The  supervisor  who  was  mentioned  above  always 
made  his  departure  as  conspicuous  as  his  arrival.  He  must 


«04  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

say,  "Good-bye,  boys  and  girls,"  and  "Good-bye,  Miss 
X ."  Then  he  would  go  sweeping  out  with  a  royal  dig- 
nity that  held  the  attention  of  the  pupils  until  he  was  out  of 
sight  and  hearing.  The  supervisor  who  is  attempting  to  do 
constructive  educational  work  through  training  and  direct- 
ing the  teachers  will  find  no  advantage  or  benefit  in  such 
spectacular,  grand-stand  performances.  The  departure  of 
the  supervisor  should  not  be  an  event  in  the  life  of  the  school, 
unless,  perhaps,  it  is  a  permanent  departure.  That  would 
certainly  be  worth  celebrating  if  the  supervisor  were  like  the 
one  mentioned. 

The  arrival  of  the  supervisor,  the  place  he  occupies  in  the 
classroom,  and  his  departure  should  all  be  in  keeping  with 
the  first  principle  of  technique;  namely,  that  the  supervisor 
should  exist  for  the  sake  of  the  teachers  and  pupils.  The 
greater  the  power  and  efficiency  of  the  supervisor,  the  less 
conspicuous  his  presence  needs  to  be  in  visiting  the  teachers 
in  the  classrooms.  The  person  who  resorts  to  making  a 
spectacular  display  of  his  performance  of  visiting  has  little 
to  commend  him,  for  he  lacks  valid  means  of  making  his 
work  felt.  In  other  words,  it  is  just  a  form  of  bluffing  to 
hide  inefficiency.  Here,  as  in  most  cases,  the  person  who 
seems  to  do  the  least  is  usually  doing  the  most,  and  vice 
versa. 

Making  comments  on  the  recitation.  The  supervisor 
should  make  a  good  many  notes  on  the  recitation.  This 
should  be  done  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  pupils  and  not  to  disconcert  the  teacher.  The 
teacher  will  have  some  difficulty  at  first,  no  doubt,  La  over- 
coming the  tendency  to  self-consciousness  that  the  writing 
of  notes  by  the  supervisor  on  the  recitation  during  its  prog- 
ress will  produce.  The  character  of  the  notes  and  comments 
will  have  much  to  do  with  helping  the  teacher  to  become 
accustomed  to  the  note-taking,  so  that  he  will  no  longer  be 


SELECTED  FORMS  OF  TECHNIQUE  *05 

distracted  or  made  anxious  by  it.  The  notes  should  be  an 
accurate  account  of  what  actually  takes  place  and  the  com- 
ments should  be  suggestive  rather  than  critical.  Many  of 
the  notes  should  be  in  the  nature  of  diagnoses  of  the  indi- 
vidual difficulties  of  pupils,  as  shown  by  the  actual  reactions 
during  the  recitation.  These  diagnoses  will  be  very  helpful 
to  the  teacher,  and  will  give  him  a  basis  for  modifying  his 
subsequent  procedure.  Such  a  concrete  basis  would  be  very 
difficult  if  not  well-nigh  impossible  for  the  teacher  to  secure 
during  the  progress  of  the  recitation.  An  expert  teacher 
should  be  able  to  do  this  sort  of  diagnosing  in  the  midst  of 
the  recitation,  but  it  cannot  be  expected  of  the  teacher  who 
is  working  under  supervision. 

Delivering  the  written  notes  and  comments.  If  feasible 
a  conference  between  the  teacher  and  supervisor  should  fol- 
low the  class  to  discuss  it  in  a  way  that  would  be  most  help- 
ful to  the  teacher.  If  circumstances  do  not  permit  this,  the 
supervisor  should,  as  a  rule,  leave  the  written  notes,  com- 
ments, and  suggestions  in  closed  form;  that  is,  so  that  a 
glance  at  the  outside  will  not  disclose  the  contents.  This 
should  be  especially  true  when  the  notes  must  be  left  in  the 
room  upon  leaving.  If  possible,  the  notes  should  be  left  in 
the  office,  or  in  a  place  prepared  for  that  purpose,  such  as  a 
box  of  pigeon-holes  marked  alphabetically  and  conveniently 
placed  for  the  use  of  the  teachers  in  receiving  written  com- 
munications. This  plan  will  avoid  curiosity  that  may  be 
aroused  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  and  the  anxiety  that  may 
be  caused  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher.  All  written  notes  and 
suggestions  should  be  in  duplicate  or  triplicate  form,  so  that 
the  teacher  and  supervisor  may  each  have  a  copy. 

As  a  final  suggestion  it  may  be  well  to  add  that  all  visita- 
tion, supervision,  and  inspection  of  the  work  of  the  teacher 
should  be  open  and  at  the  same  time  inconspicuous,  as  has 
been  suggested  above.  The  visits  of  the  supervisor  should 


206  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

never  be  of  the  keyhole-inspection  type.  The  results  of  the 
inspection  or  visit  should  always  be  submitted  to  the 
teacher.  The  teacher  should  always  have  an  opportunity 
to  explain  conditions  for  which  he  is  not  responsible,  and 
these  explanations  should  be  given  due  consideration  in 
evaluating  the  worth  of  the  teacher's  work. 

2.  Criticizing  the  work  of  the  teacher 

Outline  form  for  notes.  The  supervisor  should  take  care- 
ful and  accurate  notes  on  the  recitation,  and  base  sugges- 
tions and  criticisms  upon  the  actual  acts  of  the  teacher  and 
reactions  of  the  pupils.  The  work  of  taking  notes  may  be 
greatly  simplified  by  using  a  regular  printed  form  that  con- 
tains practically  all  of  the  points  that  the  supervisor  needs 
to  check  up  on  the  recitation.  This  printed  form  should  be 
so  made  that  a  carbon  sheet  can  be  used.  This  will  enable 
the  supervisor  to  give  one  copy  of  his  notes  and  suggestions 
to  the  teacher,  and  retain  a  copy  for  his  own  reference.  The 
following  outline  is  suggestive  of  the  points  that  might  well 
be  included  in  such  a  form: 

SUGGESTED  OUTLINE  FOE  NOTES 

J.  Physical  conditions. 

1.  Temperature  of  room. 

2.  Quality  of  air. 

3.  Posture  of  pupils. 

4.  Good  housekeeping. 

5.  Discipline. 

//.  Method. 

1.  Defects  and  errors  in  the  application  of  the  principles  of 
method.     Description  of  actual  procedure  should  be 
given  as  the  basis  for  pointing  out  defects  and  errors. 

2.  Suggestive  outline  for  correct  presentation  of  same  les- 
son or  phases  of  subject-matter,  or  for  presentation  of 
the  succeeding  lesson  if  it  employs  the  application  of  the 


SELECTED  FORMS  OF  TECHNIQUE  207 

game  principles  of  method.  This  outline  should  be  in 
considerable  detail,  and  should  contain  very  definite 
constructive  suggestions  as  to  the  application  of  the 
principles  of  method.  The  key  to  the  principles  of 
method  that  are  applied  in  the  teaching  of  the  lesson  is 
found  in  the  mental  procedure  of  the  pupils.  This  is  an 
important  point,  and  one  that  should  be  consciously  in 
the  mind  of  the  supervisor  as  he  studies  the  progress  of 
the  recitation. 

III.  Devices. 

1.  General. 

a.  Lack  of  effective  ones. 

b.  Wrong  use  of  good  ones. 

c.  Wrong  devices  used. 

d.  Good  devices  used. 

2.  Special. 

a.  Lack  of  effective  ones. 

b.  Wrong  use  of  good  ones. 

c.  Wrong  devices  used. 

d.  Good  devices  used. 

The  supervisor  should  be  careful  to  get  quite  full  data 
on  the  actual  use  of  devices.  Constructive  suggestions 
should  be  made  as  to  how  the  good  devices  that  were 
wrongly  used  should  have  been  used. 

IV.  Technique. 

1.  Quantitative  data. 

a.  Number  of  times  each  fault  of  technique  was  com- 
mitted during  the  time  the  supervisor  was  in  the 
room.  For  example,  the  teacher  may  repeat  the 
answers  given  by  the  pupils  twenty  or  thirty  times 
during  a  single  recitations.  The  supervisor  should 
make  accurate  observations  and  record  them.  The 
teacher  will  usually  be  greatly  astonished  to  learn 
he  is  practicing  such  faulty  technique  in  so  auto- 
matic a  manner. 

6.  Number  of  times  each  good  point  of  technique  was 
practiced  during  the  time  the  supervisor  was  in  the 
room.  This  might  not  be  regarded  by  some  as  a 
criticism.  It  is,  however,  a  form  of  positive  criti- 


308  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

cism  that  should  not  be  overlooked.    The  supervi- 
sor will  do  well  to  try  to  match  every  negative  criti- 
cism with  a  positive  one  that  needs  to  be  retained 
and  perfected. 
2.  Qualitative  data. 

a.  Effect  of  specific  acts  of  the  teacher  upon  the  recita- 
tion. For  example,  the  constant  repetition  of  the 
answer  of  the  pupils  invariably  leads  to  inattention 
and  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  It  also 
tends  to  slow  up  the  recitation,  and  thus  decrease 
interest.  It  also  consumes  a  great  amount  of  valu- 
able tune. 

The  supervisor  should  be  careful  to  warn  the  teacher  re- 
peatedly against  thinking  that  because  an  application  of  a 
principle  of  method,  a  use  of  a  device,  or  a  bit  of  technique 
is  wrong  in  a  particular  situation,  it  is  always  wrong.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  teacher  should  also  be  warned  against 
thinking  that  because  an  application  of  a  principle  of 
method,  a  device  used,  or  a  bit  of  technique  practiced  is 
right  in  a  particular  situation,  it  is  always  right.  For  ex- 
ample, the  repetition  of  the  answer  of  the  pupils  by  the 
teacher  is  not  always  a  wrong  practice  in  technique.  Its 
practice,  however,  in  general  tends  to  produce  detrimental 
effects  such  as  were  pointed  out  above.  Take  as  another 
example  the  asking  of  the  question  first  before  naming  the 
pupil  who  is  to  answer.  This  practice  is  in  general  right. 
There  are  times,  however,  when  it  is  perfectly  good  tech- 
nique to  name  the  pupil  before  asking  the  question.  In 
other  words,  the  situation,  the  group  of  pupils,  and  sur- 
rounding conditions  modify  the  practice  in  technique  and 
determine  very  largely  whether  it  is  right  or  wrong.  The 
suggestive  criticisms  and  suggestions  of  the  supervisor 
should  be  consistent  and  persistent  in  breaking  up  wrong 
habits.  This  should  be  especially  true  in  regard  to  the  habits 
of  technique. 


SELECTED  FORMS  OF  TECHNIQUE  209 

V.  Subject-matter. 

1.  Lack  of  knowledge. 

2.  Errors.     These  should  be  carefully  tabulated  in  order 
that  they  may  be  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  teacher. 

VI.  Results. 

1.  Accomplishment  of  ami  stated  in  the  lesson  plan. 

2.  Knowledge  definitely  acquired  by  the  class. 

3.  Habits  positively  furthered. 

VII.  Adherence  to  lesson  plan.     If  changes-were  made,  were  they 
justifiable?     Criticisms  of  the  lesson  plans  should  be  made 
orally,  and  preferably  they  should  precede  the  recitation.    No 
criticism  of  the  teacher's  work  should  be  made  orally  during 
the  recitation  or  in  the  presence  of  the  pupils. 

Rate  of  procedure  in  supervision.  The  supervisor  will 
find  it  to  be  of  great  advantage  to  attack  only  a  limited  part 
of  the  above  points  at  a  time.  The  selection  of  a  few  of  the 
most  obvious  and  very  vital  points  at  a  time,  and  careful 
consideration  of  these  before  taking  up  another  group  of 
points,  will  bring  the  best  results.  The  teacher  cannot 
think  and  watch  all  the  many  points  in  technique  and  ap- 
plication of  principles  of  method  at  the  same  time.  If  he 
tries  to  become  master  over  a  small  group  first,  and  then  an- 
other small  group,  etc.,  until  all  the  vital  and  fundamental 
points  have  been  rounded  up  and  practiced  upon,  the  best 
progress  will  be  made  in  habit  formation  and  the  most  effi- 
cient permanent  results  will  be  secured. 

3.  Conferences,  and  checking-up  icork 

Types  of  conferences  with  teachers.  The  supervisor 
should  hold  two  types  of  conferences  with  the  teachers; 
namely,  group  conferences  and  individual  conferences.  A 
definite  technique  for  conducting  these  conferences  will  go 
far  toward  rendering  them  effective.  The  following  points 
may  well  be  characteristic  of  these  conferences: 


210  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

NATURE  AND  PURPOSE  OP  CONFERENCES 

/.  Group  conferences. 

1.  Meet  the  group  of  teachers  at  fixed  times,  and  for  a  defi- 
nite period. 

2.  Make  the  teachers  feel  that  the  conference  is  an  oppor- 
tunity, and  not  just  a  requirement. 

3.  Encourage  the  teachers  to  raise  the  problems  that  have 
come  to  them  in  their  work. 

4.  Throw  each  individual's  question  and  problems  open  for 
free  discussion  by  the  group.    Stimulate  the  exchange  of 
ideas  and  comparison  of  experiences  in  dealing  with  the 
questions  and  problems. 

5.  Present  general  suggestions  and  constructive  criticisms 
in  the  form  of  questions  based  upon  data  accumulated 
during  classroom  visits. 

6.  Stimulate  discussion  of  the  suggestions  and  criticisms,  so 
that  the  teachers  themselves  determine  the  correct  an- 
swers and  formulate  the  procedure  that  should  be  fol- 
lowed in  setting  up  more  efficient  practices. 

II.  Individual  conferences. 

1.  Meet  each  teacher  for  a  personal  conference  at  a  definite 
time,  preferably  each  week,  to  go  over  the  lesson  plans 
for  the  entire  week. 

2.  Where  feasible,  meet  each  teacher  for  a  short  conference 
each  day  to  go  over  the  detailed  daily  lesson  plan  for  the 
next  recitation. 

8.  Encourage  the  teachers  to  come  individually  to  talk  over 
their  difficulties  and  to  consult  for  advice  on  special 
problems.  Let  them  ask  for  such  conferences  and  ar- 
range the  time. 

4.  Encourage  the  teachers  to  come  for  individual  conferences 
regarding  the  written  notes  and  comments  made  on  par- 
ticular recitations.     Stimulate  the  teachers  to  answer  the 
problems  that  are  based  upon  these  written  data  so  that 
they  become  their  own  critics.    One  of  the  important  out- 
comes of  supervision  should  be  that  of  making  the  teach- 
ers critical  of  their  own  performances. 

5.  Present  specific  suggestions  and  constructive  criticisms  in 
the  form  of  questions  and  problems  based  on  the  above 
data. 


SELECTED  FORMS  OF  TECHNIQUE  211 

6.  Encourage  the  teachers  by  specific  suggestions  to  individ- 
uals to  take  the  initiative  in  discovering  and  solving  prob- 
lems of  teaching. 

Checking  the  work  of  the  pupils  taught.  This  is  to  be 
done  as  a  basis  for  constructive  criticism  of  the  work  of  the 
teacher,  as  a  means  for  guarding  the  welfare  of  the  pupils  in 
their  progress  in  the  subject  or  subjects  taught,  and  to  in- 
sure justice  and  uniformity  in  giving  marks  and  assigning 
the  credit  that  should  be  given  the  pupils  at  the  close  of  the 
work. 

The  supervisor  should  carry  out  a  definite  program  of 
procedure  in  checking  up  the  work  of  the  pupils.  The  fol- 
lowing items  are  suggestive  of  what  may  be  done  to  good 
advantage: 

1.  Note  the  character  of  the  responses  made  by  the  pupils  in  the 
recitation,  as  indicative  of  motivated  interest  in  the  subject. 

2.  Note  the  individual  differences  of  pupils  as  to  general  ma- 
turity of  physical  and  mental  development,  background  of 
knowledge  and  experience  that  is  helpful  in  the  study  of  the 
subject,  and  rate  of  progress  in  mastering  the  subject.    Is  the 
teacher  adapting  the  course  to  meet  these  differences? 

8.  From  time  to  time  make  a  record  of  marks  that  should  be  as- 
signed to  the  pupils,  and  compare  with  the  marks  given  by 
the  teacher  for  the  same  piece  of  work. 

4.  Examine  all  quiz  questions  before  they  are  given;  examine 
and  mark  a  set  of  examination  papers  of  the  pupils,  and  com- 
pare marks  with  those  given  by  the  teacher. 

5.  Give  recognized  standard  tests  at  appropriate  times  during 
the  course,  to  discover  whether  or  not  the  pitch  of  the  course 
is  standard  and  the  rate  of  progress  up  to  the  normal  possi- 
bilities. 

6.  Test  ability  of  the  pupils  to  learn  new  subject-matter  in  the 
same  field  and  in  allied  fields. 

7.  From  time  to  time  secure  information  as  to  the  actual  length 
of  time  spent  in  the  outside  preparation  of  the  lessons. 

Assigning  grades  and  marks  to  pupils.  The  assigning  of 
grades  and  marks  is  a  very  difficult  problem,  and  requires 


212  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

excellent  technique  to  insure  accuracy  and  fairness.  There- 
fore the  supervisor,  in  carrying  out  the  suggestions  outlined 
above,  should  work  out  definite,  detailed  technique  for 
grading  and  marking  the  work  of  the  pupils.  Such  tech- 
nique should  involve  a  number  of  standards. 
The  following  suggestions  have  proved  practical: 

I.  Standards  of  achievement,  which  designate: 

1.  A  definite  number  of  fact  units. 

2.  A  maximum  and  minimum  of  speed,  accuracy,  etc.,  in 
special  habits  and  skills. 

3.  A  definite  evidence  of  achievement  in  general  habits  and 
skills. 

II.  A  range  of  marks  which  extends  as  far  below  the  minimum  or 
passing  mark  as  it  does  above  it.  For  example,  if  D  is  pass- 
ing, the  marks  should  range  from  A  to  G.  The  marks,  E,  F, 
G  are  just  as  significant  in  showing  how  far  below  the  mini- 
mum the  pupils  fall  as  are  A,  B,  C  in  giving  the  upper  range. 
HI.  A  scheme  of  grading,  that  gives  definite  weight  to: 

1.  Form,  and 

2.  Content,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject  and  the 
phase  of  achievement  that  is  being  tested. 

IV.  A  scheme  of  recording  marks  that  shows  the  achievement: 

1.  Phases  (facts,  habits);  and  by 

2.  Units  within  the  phases.     For  example,  in  arithmetic 
the  pupil  might  have  a  mark  of  A  in  knowledge  of  com- 
mon fractions,  and  a  mark  of  D  in  decimals.     Likewise 
he  might  have  a  mark  of  B  in  speed  of  adding  whole 
numbers,  and  a  mark  of  E  in  accuracy. 

The  supervisor  should  make  every  effort  to  eliminate  the 
influence  of  physical  condition,  mood,  prejudice,  partiality, 
over-enthusiasm  for  the  subject,  over-sympathy  for  the 
pupil,  etc.,  in  grading  and  marking  the  tests. 

Chapter  summary.  The  supervisor  should  visit  the 
teacher  at  work  almost  daily  from  the  very  beginning.  He 
should  enter  and  leave  the  room  in  an  inconspicuous  man- 
ner, and  occupy  an  inconspicuous  position  while  in  the 
room.  He  should  make  detailed  notes  on  the  work  ob- 


SELECTED  FORMS  OF  TECHNIQUE  213 

served,  and  deliver  these  notes  to  the  teacher  in  such  form 
and  manner  as  not  to  distract  or  embarrass  the  teacher. 
The  criticisms  offered  upon  the  teacher's  work  should  cover 
points  in  method,  devices,  and  technique,  but  they  should 
be  focused  at  first  upon  a  few  of  the  most  vital  points,  and 
be  gradually  extended  as  the  teacher  develops.  The  super- 
visor should  encourage  the  teacher,  through  conference,  to 
discover  and  solve  his  own  problems.  He  should  safeguard 
the  work  of  the  pupils  by  checking  up  their  work  from  time 
to  time,  and  grading  them  on  their  work. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Give  examples,  from  your  experience,  of  incorrect  technique  of  enter- 
ing, leaving,  and  position  occupied  in  the  room  practiced  by  a  super- 
visor when  visiting  a  teacher  at  work. 

2.  Give  examples,  from  your  experience,  of  good  technique  in  classroom 
visitation  practiced  by  a  supervisor. 

3.  Make  two  visits  to  different  classes  at  work  and  hand  in  copies  of  the 
notes  taken  during  the  visits,  in  the  same  form  that  you  would  submit 
them  to  the  teacher  visited. 

4.  Make  a  blank  form  for  the  supervisor  to  use  in  criticizing  the  work  of 
his  teachers.     Criticize  the  outline  for  criticism  of  the  teacher's  work 
that  is  given  in  this  chapter,  and  show  how  it  can  be  improved. 

5.  Make  five  visits  to  different  teachers,  and  hand  in  copies  of  lists  of 
the  most  obvious  vital  points  in  method,  devices,  and  technique  that 
might  well  be  attacked  first  by  the  supervisor  in  developing  these 
teachers. 

6.  Plan  in  detail  a  group  conference  with  teachers  you  have  visited,  and 
show  how  you  would  lead  them  to  raise  the  teaching  problems  and 
carry  on  the  discussion  of  them. 

7.  Make  a  suggestive  outline  that  you  might  give  to  teachers  to  help 
them  in  becoming  critical  of  their  own  performances. 

8.  Visit  a  class  at  work,  report  in  writing  the  motives  that  seem  to  influ- 
ence the  pupils,  and  give  the  types  of  responses  upon  which  you  deter- 
mine the  motives. 

9.  Visit  a  class  at  work,  and  make  a  written  report  of  the  kinds  and 
ranges  of  individual  differences  discovered  during  the  recitation. 

10.  Visit  a  class  daily  for  a  week,  and  grade  and  assign  marks  to  the  class 
according  to  the  suggestions  given  in  this  chapter  under  "Assigning 
grades  and  marks  to  pupils." 


CHAPTER  XV 
ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  THE  TEACHER 

Considerations  in  estimating  success.  The  estimate  of 
the  success  of  the  teacher  is  based  upon  two  large  considera- 
tions which  are  so  related  as  to  make  the  relative  emphasis 
that  should  be  given  to  each  very  difficult  to  determine.  The 
one  consideration  is  the  success  of  the  teacher  in  mastering 
the  principles  of  method,  his  resourcefulness  in  inventing 
devices,  his  success  in  acquiring  skill  of  technique,  and  his 
independence  of  thought  in  analyzing  new  teaching  situa- 
tions and  of  action  in  meeting  them.  The  other  considera- 
tion is  the  results  of  the  teacher's  work,  which  are  shown  by 
a  careful  checking-up  and  measuring  of  the  work  of  the  pu- 
pils who  are  under  the  teacher's  charge.  This  second  item 
is  the  gauge  that  is  used  ordinarily  by  school  people  and  the 
general  public  in  deciding  the  success  of  the  teacher,  and 
very  often  the  teacher  is  held  responsible  when  the  pupils 
and  other  individuals  should  bear  the  blame.  The  teacher 
might  be  highly  successful  from  the  standpoint  of  the  first 
consideration,  and  still  fail  to  accomplish  the  desired  results 
in  the  work  of  the  pupils  because  he  is  too  consciously  ab- 
sorbed in  achieving  mastery  over  the  items  of  mere  teach- 
ing. If,  however,  the  teacher  has  such  mastery  of  the  sci- 
ence of  teaching  that  he  subconsciously  adapts  it  to  the 
achievement  of  desired  results  in  the  work  and  lives  of  his 
pupils,  the  failure  of  the  pupils  can  surely  not  be  charged  to 
the  teacher.  Conditions  over  which  the  teacher  may  have 
no  control  may  obtain  to  the  degree  that  the  most  expert 
teaching  cannot  succeed  in  accomplishing  the  desired  re- 
sults. Conditions  may  be  such  that  the  pupils  themselves 
are  not  to  be  blamed  for  failure. 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  THE  TEACHER   £15 

On  the  other  hand,  the  teaching  may  be  poor,  and  yet  the 
pupils  show  very  satisfactory  results  when  their  work  is 
checked.  That  is  to  say,  the  pupils  may  be  getting  outside 
of  school  from  other  sources  the  training  that  the  teacher  is 
supposed  to  be  giving  them.  Hence,  judging  the  efficiency 
of  the  teaching,  without  seeing  and  carefully  studying  his 
work,  by  the  tests  which  the  pupils  may  be  able  to  pass,  is 
not  sound  practice.  The  conclusion  seems  evident  that  in 
order  to  place  the  correct  relative  emphasis  upon  these  two 
considerations  in  deciding  the  success  of  the  teacher,  the 
supervisor  must  check  his  measure  of  the  performances  of 
the  teacher  against  the  results  shown  by  tests  given  to  the 
pupils,  and  at  the  same  time  account  for  the  other  factors 
that  in  any  given  situation  have  had  much  to  do  with  de- 
termining the  effectiveness  of  the  teacher's  work. 

The  rating  of  teachers.  The  rating  of  the  teacher  as 
measured  by  the  first  consideration  just  set  forth  requires  a 
most  careful  study  and  accurate  analysis  of  the  teacher's 
classroom  performances,  in  the  light  of  a  definite  set  of 
standards.  Vague  generalizations  and  broad  guesses  must 
give  way  to  scientific  analysis  and  accurate  measurement. 
If  a  set  of  definite  standards  cannot  be  set  up,  by  means  of 
which  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher  can  be  reliably  measured, 
then  the  rating  of  teachers  should  be  abandoned  altogether. 
The  standards  that  are  used  must  involve  many  detailed 
points,  but  each  point  must  admit  of  definite  measurement. 
That  is  to  say,  each  point  must  be  objectively  exhibited  in 
the  performance  of  the  teacher.  If  other  points  than  those 
that  can  be  objectively  measured  seem  desirable,  these 
points  should  be  given  under  the  head  of  general  impres- 
sions and  personal  reactions. 

A  number  of  schemes  for  rating  teachers  has  been  devised. 
These  have  been  used  with  varying  degrees  of  success.  The 
main  point  that  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  the  use  of  any 


210  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

scheme  is  that  of  carefully  analyzing  the  evidences  secured 
in  valid  ways  and  basing  all  estimates  upon  the  results  of 
such  analysis.  The  outline  that  follows  in  this  discussion  is 
merely  suggestive  of  the  sort  of  detailed  analysis  the  su- 
pervisor should  make  of  the  teaching  performances  of  hif 
teachers. 

Suggested  outline  for  teacher  rating 

Intellectual  ability.  The  future  growth  and  development 
of  the  teacher  is  largely  dependent  upon  his  native  intellec- 
tual ability.  The  present  efficiency  of  the  teacher  is  also 
greatly  determined  by  the  ability  that  he  has  to  grasp  the 
various  situations  presented  from  day  to  day  in  the  school- 
room, and  to  think  intelligently  about  them.  Since  the 
supervisor  is  concerned  with  both  the  present  performance  of 
the  teacher  and  the  promise  it  holds  for  his  future  efficiency, 
he  should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  various  evidences  that 
come  under  his  observation  and  estimate  this  factor  of  in- 
tellectual ability  as  accurately  as  possible.  The  employ- 
ment of  standardized  intelligence  tests  may  be  the  most 
reliable  means  of  determining  this  factor,  but  such  tests 
should  be  given  only  by  experts.  Even  then  the  check  of 
practical  observations  of  the  teacher's  keenness  of  intellect 
is  desirable  and  invaluable  in  determining  the  rank  of  the 
teacher  in  this  trait. 

General  scholarship.  One  very  important  item  in  the 
efficiency  of  the  teacher  is  his  general  scholarship.  The  in- 
dividual who  possesses  a  wide  range  of  knowledge,  and  es- 
pecially an  intelligent  acquaintance  with  many  fields  of 
modern  activity,  will  be  able  to  present  the  specific  prob- 
lems in  any  particular  subject  in  their  relations  to  broader 
problems  and  fields  of  subject-matter.  The  supervisor 
should  check  up  the  range  of  the  teacher's  general  training 
and  experience,  including  high-school,  even  elementary- 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  THE  TEACHER    217 

school  work,  college  courses,  and  industrial,  professional, 
civic,  and  social  activities  that  the  teacher  has  engaged  in 
specifically  and  definitely.  He  should  study  the  influence 
that  this  background  of  training  seems  to  have  upon  the 
teacher's  efficiency,  and  be  able  to  advise  him  as  to  the  lines 
in  which  he  needs  to  extend  his  general  equipment  and 
development. 

Special  scholarship.  The  item  of  scholarship  that  most 
immediately  and  most  noticeably  affects  the  teacher's  effi- 
ciency in  the  classroom  is  his  special  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
jects he  is  teaching,  and  his  knowledge  of  the  science  of  edu- 
cation, particularly  his  mastery  of  the  science  of  teaching 
these  particular  subjects.  The  supervisor  needs  to  know 
the  range  of  training  that  the  teacher  has  in  the  subjects  he 
is  teaching,  and  the  training  he  has  received  in  subjects 
closely  allied  to  them.  Moreover,  he  should  know  the  gen- 
eral degree  of  success  with  which  the  teacher  has  dealt  with 
these  bodies  of  subject-matter.  The  supervisor  should  in 
like  manner  know  the  range  of  professional  subject-matter 
studied  by  the  teacher,  and  the  degree  of  success  with  which 
he  has  pursued  these  studies. 

The  efficiency  of  the  teacher  in  dealing  accurately  with 
the  facts  in  the  subjects  he  teaches  should  not  only  be  care- 
fully checked  up,  but  inefficiency  at  any  time  should  be  ac- 
counted for  as  far  as  possible  in  terms  of  the  teacher's  train- 
ing in  these  special  subjects.  The  supervisor  should  be  able 
to  judge  whether  or  not  the  present  inaccuracies  of  knowl- 
edge exhibited  in  the  teacher's  work  will  likely  disappear 
with  experience  as  the  specific  training  in  the  subjects  has 
more  and  more  opportunity  to  be  used,  or  whether  the 
teacher  needs  more  specific  training  and  study  in  certain 
aspects  of  his  special  lines  of  work.  The  supervisor  should 
keep  in  mind  the  important  fact  that  he  is  not  only  estimat- 
ing the  present  efficiency  of  the  teacher's  knowledge,  but 


218  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

that  he  is  also  predicting  the  future  efficiency  as  indicated 
by  the  range  of  training  and  present  measure  or  rank. 

Ability  to  express  thoughts.  The  most  important  item  in 
expression  of  thoughts  is  fluency  and  correctness  of  English. 
The  teacher  who  lacks  command  of  a  vocabulary  that  is  not 
only  appropriate  to  the  subject  being  taught,  but  that  is 
also  appropriate  to  the  language  ability  of  the  pupils  being 
taught,  is  not  an  efficient  teacher,  no  matter  how  fluent  and 
correct  his  speech  may  be.  The  test  of  ability  to  express 
thoughts,  then,  is  in  what  the  pupils  get  readily  and  clearly 
from  the  language  of  the  teacher.  All  other  things  being 
equal,  fluency  of  expression  will  no  doubt  contribute  to  the 
readiness  with  which  the  pupils  grasp  what  the  teacher  says, 
and  correctness  will  have  an  influence  upon  the  language 
habits  of  the  pupils. 

A  second  factor  in  expressing  thoughts  is  the  quality  and 
control  of  the  voice.  The  teacher  may  use  appropriate 
words  and  fluent,  correct  sentences,  and  yet  fail  to  make  his 
ideas  clearly  and  readily  understood  because  he  has  such 
a  shrill,  explosive,  rasping,  muffled,  or  other  disagreeable 
quality  of  voice.  Not  only  the  quality  of  voice,  but  its  con- 
trol, has  much  to  do  with  the  readiness  of  comprehension  on 
the  part  of  the  listener.  A  monotonous  or  lifeless  tone  of 
voice  does  not  carry  thought  as  does  the  well-modulated  yet 
vigorous  voice.  The  power  of  the  voice  must  be  regulated 
to  suit  the  size  of  the  room  and  the  character  of  the  discus- 
sion, as  well  as  the  age  of  the  pupils.  Young  pupils  may  be 
frightened  by  the  too  loud,  or  be  soothed  by  the  well-regu- 
lated force  of  the  teacher's  vocal  expression.  ,The  teacher 
needs  to  know  both  his  present  effectiveness  and  his  future 
possibilities  in  regard  to  his  voice  as  a  factor  in  expressing 
his  thoughts. 

Teaching  ability.  This  item  should  be  confined  to  those 
factors  that  bear  immediately  upon  the  preparation  and 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  THE  TEACHER    219 

presentation  of  subject-matter.    A  number  of  details  figure 
in  this,  and  they  should  be  critically  studied  over  a  consid- 
erable period  of  time  in  order  to  get  an  accurate  measure 
ment  of  each  point.    As  many  concrete  evidences  as  possi 
ble  should  be  accumulated  under  each  point  suggested  in  the 
following  discussion. 

1.  Mastery  of  the  principles  of  method.     The  test  of  effi- 
ciency on  this  point  is  in  the  recognition  the  teacher  gives  ta 
the  mental  procedure  going  on  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils 
during  the  recitation,  and  the  degree  to  which  he  anticipate* 
what  the  mental  procedure  will  be  in  the  study  preparation 
of  the  pupils.     The  mere  fact  that  the  teacher  organizes 
subject-matter  in  the  form  of  inductive  or  deductive  prob- 
lems does  not  indicate  a  mastery  of  the  principles  of  method. 
The  attempt  of  the  teacher  to  have  pupils  memorize  ma- 
terials by  the  "whole  method"  rather  than  by  the  "part 
method  "  does  not  show  that  he  understands  the  pedagogi- 
cal principles  involved.     The  crucial  point  is,  does  the 
teacher  have  an  intelligent  conception  of  what  the  minds  of 
the  pupils  are  doing  in  the  learning  of  whatever  it  is  he  is 
undertaking  to  teach  them?    This  test  cannot  be  applied  by 
mere  observation  of  the  classroom  performance.     Critical 
discussions  with  the  teacher  before  the  recitation,  and  also 
after,  to  get  definitely  what  he  anticipates  will  happen  and 
what  he  realizes  did  happen,  are  necessary  in  making  an 
accurate  measure  of  the  teacher's  efficiency,  so  far  as  it  is 
indicated  by  his  mastery  of  method. 

2.  Intelligence  and  resourcefulness  in  selecting  and  adapt- 
ing devices.    Devices  are  invented,  and  no  set  of  inventions 
that  fits  one  situation  or  one  type  of  situation  just  exactly 
fits  another  situation  or  type.     The  teacher  should  show 
that  he  knows  what  each  pupil  needs  to  further  his  learning, 
and  when  to  discard  devices  that  l>ecome  tasks  rather  than 
aids  to  the  pupils.    The  fact  that  the  teacher  can  enumerate 


220  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

glibly  the  general  range  of  devices  that  have  customarily 
been  used  in  teaching  a  subject  or  any  phase  of  a  subject, 
and  the  use  of  these  devices  in  his  teaching,  is  not  necessa- 
rily evidence  of  his  efficiency.  The  supervisor  must  get  into 
the  thinking  of  the  teacher  and  find  out  why  he  made  this 
selection  or  that  selection  of  devices,  this  modification  or 
that  modification,  and  why  he  failed  to  modify  or  even  dis- 
card this  or  that  device  in  the  face  of  a  given  situation.  The 
observation  of  the  devices  used  by  the  teacher  may  disclose 
accidental  success  or  failure  when  the  data  are  checked  up 
with  the  teacher  and  carefully  analyzed.  The  objective 
data  secured  by  keen  observation  are  absolutely  necessary 
in  measuring  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher  in  respect  to  de- 
vices, but  the  data  must  be  evaluated  and  not  just  taken  at 
face  value. 

3.  Definiteness  of  lesson  planning  and  skill  in  following  the 
plan.    This  is  largely  a  matter  of  habit,  and  the  supervisor 
cannot  measure  it  by  scrutinizing  a  few  written  plans  and  by 
visiting  a  few  recitations.     This  habit  must  be  studied  as  it 
manifests  its  efficiency  in  all  types  of  subject-matter  and 
various  recitation  situations.    It  involves  a  clear  conception 
of  the  aims  of  education  and  the  specific  purposes  for  which 
the  subject  is  being  taught.     Definite  planning  must  mean 
worth-while  planning  as  well  as  ability  to  organize  a  plan  of 
action  and  then  to  carry  it  through.     The  supervisor  must 
get  an  insight  into  the  teacher's  thinking  about  the  purposes 
the  teacher  is  trying  definitely  to  realize  in  his  teaching,  ul- 
timately and  immediately.     Knowing  this  the  supervisor 
can  judge  how  definite  the  teacher's  plans  are  and  how  thor- 
oughly he  realizes  them.    Then,  upon  a  sufficient  amount  of 
objective  data  in  the  way  of  written  plans  and  teaching  per- 
formances based  on  these  plans,  a  reliable  measure  can  be 
made  of  the  degree  to  which  the  habit  has  been  formed. 

4.  Skill  and  reliability  of  technique.     This  item  of  effi- 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  THE  TEACHER    221 

ciency  is  a  highly  important  one,  and  the  supervisor  should 
secure  a  vast  amount  of  objective  data  that  reliably  shows 
the  degree  to  which  typically  good  habits  have  been  well 
formed,  and  the  extent  to  which  typically  bad  habits  are 
practiced  by  the  teacher.  A  large  number  of  visits,  that  in- 
sures the  witnessing  of  the  teaching  of  different  types  of 
materials  and  teaching  under  different  conditions,  is  essen- 
tial to  discover  the  many  points  in  technique  necessary  to 
the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  that  should  be  expected  of 
the  teacher.  Good  days  must  be  checked  against  bad  days, 
good  conditions  against  poor  conditions,  etc.  The  ability  to 
adapt  his  technique  to  suit  conditions,  rather  than  following 
supposed  typical  good  forms  of  technique  blindly,  should  be 
taken  as  one  of  the  chief  tests  of  the  teacher's  efficiency  in 
technique. 

5.  Ability  to  secure  desired  results.  This  factor  in  the 
teacher's  efficiency  must  be  measured  by  a  somewhat  defi- 
nite standard  or  set  of  results  that  can  be  objectively  demon- 
strated. The  supervisor  can  secure  such  objective  data 
only  by  the  most  careful  study  of  the  reactions  of  the  pupils 
during  recitations  and  study  periods.  All  formal  results  in 
the  way  of  skills  and  knowledge  of  facts  may  well  be  tested 
by  means  of  standardized  tests,  and  examinations.  The 
following  list  of  results  is  suggestive  of  what  might  well  be 
taken  as  the  basis  for  judging  the  teacher's  ability  to  secure 
measurable  results: 

1.  Motivated  interest  in  the  subject  or  subjects  taught. 

2.  Faithful  consistent  effort  in  pursuing  the  study  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

3.  Achievement  in  knowledge  of  subject-matter. 

4.  Special  habits  and  skills,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject.    These  habits  may  be  speed  and  accuracy,  such  as  are 
demanded  in  mathematics,  shorthand,  typewriting,  etc. 

5.  General  habits  and  skills,  such  as : 

a.  Technique  of  organizing  subject-matter  and  of  using 


222  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

books,  materials,  and  apparatus  in  the  solution  of  prob- 
lems. 

6.  Habits  of  study  and  methods  of  attacking  subject-mat- 
ter with  initiative;  power  to  analyze  new  situations  and 
new  subject-matter;  and  power  to  apply  knowledge  to 
the  solution  of  new  problems. 

c.  Habit  and  power  of  concentration  of  attention  for  long 
periods  of  time. 

6.  Ability  to  test  and  grade  definitely  and  accurately  the 
work  of  the  pupils.  The  fundamental  aspects  of  this  factor 
are,  the  ability,  first,  to  devise  fair  and  reliable  tests  and 
examinations  for  measuring  the  attainments  of  the  pupils, 
and  second,  to  evaluate  accurately  the  data  secured  from  the 
pupils  on  their  tests  and  examinations.  Such  tests  and  ex- 
aminations must  be  adapted  to  the  maturity  and  develop- 
ment of  the  pupils  in  any  particular  grade  or  class.  The 
teacher  must  demonstrate  his  knowledge  of  the  principles 
underlying  all  forms  of  tests,  his  ability  to  devise  good  de- 
vices for  administering  them,  and  his  skill  in  technique  in 
devising,  administering,  and  evaluating  the  tests  and  the  re- 
sults secured  from  them.  The  supervisor  must  study  the 
teacher  as  he  carries  on  all  these  phases  of  the  testing  per- 
formance, and  base  his  measurement  of  this  factor  in  effi- 
ciency upon  a  considerable  amount  of  objective  data. 

Ability  to  manage  and  discipline.  This  ability  involves 
two  general  problems  of  management;  namely,  the  manage- 
ment of  the  classroom  and  the  management  of  the  pupils. 

The  management  of  the  classroom  includes  the  orderly 
arrangement  of  chairs,  maps,  apparatus,  and  other  physical 
equipment,  according  to  the  purposes  of  the  recitation,  and 
the  routinizing  of  attention  to  such  matters  as  ventilation, 
temperature,  and  light. 

The  management  of  the  pupils  may  be  analyzed  into  a 
number  of  very  definite  points,  which  can  be  measured  on 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  THE  TEACHER    223 

the  basis  of  concrete  evidences.     The  following  items  are 
suggested  as  worth  considering  and  measuring  definitely: 

1.  Understanding  of  proper  standards  of  conduct,  according  to 
the  age  of  the  pupils  and  the  school  conditions. 

2.  Understanding  of   rational  measures  of  discipline  that  are 
adequate  to  maintain  the  standards  set  up. 

8.  Conception  of  the  purpose  of  discipline,  which  involves  the 
idea  that  discipline  should  be  constructive  education  for  the 
development  of  character  through  social  behavior,  as  opposed 
to  the  idea  that  it  is  a  form  of  penal  atonement  for  wrong  con- 
duct. 

4.  Understanding  and  appreciation  of   the  different  types  of 
pupils. 

5.  Ability  to  adapt  the  measures  of  discipline  to  the  different 
ages  and  types  of  pupils. 

6.  Ability  to  select  the  measures  of  discipline,  for  each  case,  that 
are  logical  in  relation  to  the  nature  of  the  offense  and  the  con- 
structive results  that  are  to  be  secured  through  discipline. 

7.  The  ability  of  the  teacher  hi  administering  disciplinary  meas- 
ures to  be  impersonal,  businesslike,  and  self -controlled  instead 
of  personal,  haphazard,  flustered,  timid,  and  unreasonable. 

The  supervisor  should  study  the  teacher's  performance  in 
handling  a  number  of  cases  of  discipline,  in  order  to  secure 
concrete  data  on  as  wide  a  range  of  types  and  individual 
cases  as  possible.  The  general  estimate  of  the  teacher's 
efficiency  in  managing  pupils  should  be  based  upon  a  careful 
measurement  of  each  detailed  point  set  forth  alwve.  More- 
over, the  teacher's  whole  conception  of  discipline  as  related 
to  human  behavior  should  be  got  at  through  critical  discus- 
sions, based  upon  some  well-defined  philosophy  of  education 
by  means  of  constructive  discipline. 

A  philosophy  of  school  discipline.  The  supervisor  may 
be  helped  in  getting  a  definite  philosophical  basis  for  judging 
the  efficiency  of  the  teacher's  ability  to  administer  disciplin- 
ary measures,  as  a  form  of  constructive  education,  by  study- 
ing the  suggestions  given  below  and  by  getting  his  teachers 


224  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

to  adopt  them  as  the  guiding  point  of  view  in  their  disciplin- 
ary procedure.  The  suggestions  cover  not  only  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  a  philosophy  of  discipline,  but  to  some 
extent  important  devices  and  forms  of  technique.  The 
writer  has  found  these  suggestions  very  helpful  in  this  par- 
ticular form,  hence  they  will  be  submitted  without  further 
detailed  discussion  of  them. 

A  MODERN  POINT  OF  VIEW  OF  SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE 

1.  No  act  of  discipline  and  no  form  of  punishment  should  ever 
be  administered  as  a  penalty  for  the  offense  committed,  but  as 
a  means  of  making  the  offender  realize  that  the  real  wrong  is 
his  attitude  of  mind,  his  willingness  to  commit  such  an  act, 
and  that  the  only  amelioration  of  the  offense  is  to  change  his 
attitude. 

2.  No  act  of  discipline  and  no  form  of  punishment  should  be  ad- 
ministered in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  offender  an  example 
before  the  school,  but  in  such  a  manner  that  the  offender  is 
made  to  feel  he  is  given  an  opportunity  to  redeem  himself  by 
personal  help  and  advice  of  the  teacher,  without  his  weakness 
being  paraded  before  public  gaze. 

8.  Rules  and  regulations  should  be  clearly  set  forth  at  the  outset, 
and  the  function  that  they  are  to  serve  in  promoting  the  wel- 
fare of  the  school  as  a  whole  carefully  explained;  but  there- 
after each  offender  should  be  talked  to  individually,  even 
though  several  may  have  committed  the  same  offense  at  the 
same  time.  Seek  the  confidence  of  the  individual,  and  make 
him  feel  that  his  integrity  in  facing  the  situation  fairly  can  be 
trusted. 

4.  Make  pupils  feel  that  the  teacher's  presence  and  watchful- 
ness are  just  as  helpful  in  overcoming  weaknesses  of  conduct 
as  in  overcoming  difficulties  in  his  other  lessons. 

5.  Look  upon  misconduct  of  pupils  as  an  opportunity  to  do  a 
piece  of  real  work  in  education,  remembering  that  it  is  the 
character  of  the  individual  and  not  personal  satisfaction  or 
justification  that  is  to  be  sought  in  discipline. 

6.  Hold  up  clearly  high  standards  of  conduct,  good  order,  and 
work. 

7.  Meet  pupils  in  personal  conferences  in  order  to  bring  about  a 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  THE  TEACHER    225 

definite  understanding  with  them  as  to  what  is  expected  of 
them.  This  is  one  of  the  best  ways  of  making  the  pupil  feel 
his  responsibility  to  the  school,  and  also  of  establishing  a 
close,  friendly  tie  between  teacher  and  pupil. 

8.  Never  hold  up  one  pupil  as  a  model  to  another,  and  never  dis- 
cuss the  conduct  of  one  pupil  with  another.     Hold  up  ideals 
of  group  welfare,  and  seek  the  cooperation  of  each  pupil  in 
realizing  the  ideals. 

9.  Be  alert  and  accurate  in  interpreting  the  acts  of  pupils  so  as  to 
anticipate  then-  conduct,  and  to  start  counter-suggestions  to 
prevent  undesirable  behavior. 

10.  Decide  quickly  and  act  promptly. 

11.  See  and  hear  everything  that  goes  on  in  the  room,  in  the  halls, 
on  the  playground,  on  the  street,  and  in  public  places  where 
the  conduct  of  pupils  may  be  observed. 

12.  Have  a  dignified,  firm  bearing,  attitude  of  sureness  of  self,  and 
just  what  is  going  to  be  done. 

13.  Control  of  temper;  keep  cool  in  emergencies. 

14.  Do  not  have  a  chip  on  the  shoulder;  be  not  supersensitive, 
and  not  easily  upset  by  aggravating  things. 

'  15.  Be  willing  to  go  more  than  halfway  to  meet  a  pupil  who  is  be- 
ing disciplined. 

16.  Never  announce  in  advance  what  the  punishment  will  be  for 
any  offense,  and  never  threaten  what  will  be  done  in  any  case. 
The  pupil  is  sometimes  led  to  commit  an  offense  because  he 
has  contempt  for  the  punishment. 

17.  Make  the  punishment  the  logical  consequence  of  the  offense. 

18.  Do  not  talk  to  people  outside  of  school  about  disciplinary 
problems  and  measures  that  have  been  administered. 

Personal  appearance.  The  appearance  of  the  teacher  is 
affected  by  two  factors,  namely,  physical  development  and 
health  and  dress  and  carriage.  The  supervisor  should  note 
the  effects  of  these  two  factors  during  a  sufficient  period  of 
time  to  enable  him  to  know  quite  definitely  whether  the 
teacher  has  the  strength  to  keep  up  a  vigorous  program  of 
work,  and  whether  his  habits  of  dress  are  in  keeping  with 
school  work  and  school  conditions.  Good  looks  are  so  much 
a  matter  of  personal  taste  that  the  supervisor  cannot  meas- 


226  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

lire  them  and  rate  the  efficiency  upon  them  with  any  degree 
of  assurance.  If  the  supervisor  feels  that  he  should  make 
some  statement  in  regard  to  looks,  he  should  give  the  state- 
ment as  merely  his  own  personal  judgment  and  impression. 

Qualities  of  leadership.  This  is  an  important  item,  and 
the  supervisor  should  secure  definite  data  on  the  recognition 
that  is  accorded  the  teacher  by  his  fellows,  and  the  people 
with  whom  he  associates  in  different  lines  of  activity,  and 
the  recognition  he  receives  from  his  pupils.  The  efficiency 
of  the  teacher  in  leadership  is  shown  not  so  much  by  mere 
popularity  as  by  the  number  and  kinds  of  demands  that  are 
made  upon  him  in  assuming  the  lead  in  carrying  on  worth- 
while group  enterprises  and  activities.  Another  evidence  of 
leadership  is  shown  in  his  ability  to  initiate  ideas  and  ideals, 
and  to  influence  people  to  adopt  them.  An  abundance  of 
concrete  cases  should  be  the  basis  for  measuring  this  factor 
in  the  teacher's  efficiency. 

The  ability  of  the  teacher  to  direct  and  to  participate  in 
the  social  activities  of  the  school,  such  as  assemblies,  par- 
ties, commencements,  etc.,  affords  an  excellent  opportunity 
for  measuring  leadership  by  concrete  evidences.  Note 
should  be  made  of  the  critical  situations  that  arise  in  which 
the  teacher  was  able  to  take  the  initiative,  and  to  keep  it  in 
the  face  of  difficulties.  The  measure  of  the  degree  to  which 
the  teacher  is  able  to  assert  leadership,  as  shown  by  such 
evidences  as  have  been  suggested,  is  important,  but  the  char- 
acter and  quality  of  his  leadership  and  influence  should  also 
be  given  consideration.  Granted  that  the  teacher  will  lead, 
then  his  moral  and  religious  habits  and  tendencies  will  de- 
termine the  character  of  his  leadership.  This  point  should 
not  be  made  an  orthodox  one,  but  just  one  of  good  common 
sense,  and  the  supervisor  should  have  more  than  a  mere  im- 
pression of  what  the  quality  of  any  teacher's  leadership  will 
in  all  probability  be. 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  THE  TEACHER    227 

Professional  attitude.  This  factor  is  shown  by  the  spirit 
of  cooperation  with  which  the  teacher  enters  into  his  duties, 
and  the  promptness  with  which  he  performs  them.  Another 
evidence  of  professional  spirit  is  the  earnestness  with  which 
he  makes  efficient  service  his  chief  concern.  Another  item 
is  the  loyalty  shown  to  his  fellows  and  his  superiors,  through 
keeping  still  on  the  outside  of  school  concerning  matters 
that  are  discussed  in  teachers'  meetings,  or  in  the  office  as 
strictly  school  affairs;  boosting  the  school  as  a  whole;  boost- 
ing the  work  of  the  superintendent,  the  supervisors,  and  his 
fellow  teachers;  supporting  the  musical,  literary,  and  ath- 
letic organizations  and  enterprises;  and  taking  active  par- 
ticipation in  the  social  affairs  of  the  school.  A  still  further 
manifestation  of  professional  attitude  is  the  extent  to  which 
the  teacher  reads  recent  educational  books,  magazines,  and 
daily  newspapers;  attends  teachers'  institutes,  associations, 
and  other  educational  meetings;  attends  public  lectures  and 
general  gatherings  of  public  interest;  and  participates  in 
parent-teacher  oganizations  and  other  civic  enterprises. 

Type  of  school  in  which  the  teacher  would  be  most  effi- 
cient. This  is  one  of  the  important  points  and  is  recognized 
to-day  as  an  important  responsibility  of  the  supervisor. 
The  teacher  who  is  well  adapted  to  kindergarten  and  pri' 
mary  grades  may  be  a  very  indifferent  teacher  in  the  in- 
termediate or  upper  grades,  and  vice  versa.  A  good  sen- 
ior high  school  teacher  may  be  a  failure  hi  the  junior  high 
school,  and  vice  versa.  A  teacher  poorly  adapted  to  teach  in 
the  senior  high  school  might  be  a  very  successful  teacher  in 
the  junior  or  senior  college,  or  in  a  normal  school.  The  best 
means  for  determining  just  what  type  of  school  the  teacher 
is  best  adapted  to  would  be  that  of  trying  the  teacher  out  in 
each  type  of  school.  This  cannot  always  be  done;  hence 
other  means  will  have  to  be  employed.  Having  the  teacher 
visit  the  various  types  of  schools  and  make  careful  reports 


228  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

of  their  observations,  and  discussing  these  reports  with  the 
teacher  to  discover  his  own  idea  as  to  what  particular  school 
situation  appeals  most  to  him,  may  be  made  a  very  helpful 
means  of  determining  the  right  placement  of  the  teacher. 
Whatever  means  the  supervisor  may  have  at  his  command 
for  deciding  this  point  should  be  used  as  fully  as  possible, 
and  whether  these  means  happen  to  be  ample  or  meager 
the  supervisor  should  make  some  decision  as  to  the  field 
or  fields  for  which  he  would  recommend  the  teacher  with 
assurance. 

Type  of  community  in  which  the  teacher  will  be  most 
efficient.  Determining  the  type  of  community  hi  which 
the  teacher  would  be  likely  to  do  his  best  work  is  quite  as 
important  as  deciding  the  type  of  school  or  the  particular 
grade  of  work  for  which  he  is  best  fitted.  The  rural  district, 
the  small  town,  the  small  city,  and  the  large  city  each  pre- 
sents conditions  that  differ  widely  in  the  demands  they  all 
make  upon  the  teacher.  Not  every  individual  possesses  the 
power  of  adapting  himself  to  such  a  wide  range  of  conditions 
to  the  extent  that  he  would  be  successful  in  any  or  all  of 
these  types  of  communities.  Even  a  teacher  well  adapted 
to  teach  in  a  large  city  might  be  successful  in  a  native-popu- 
lation ward  and  a  failure  in  a  foreign-population  ward,  and 
vice  versa.  Here  again  the  supervisor  needs  to  employ  about 
the  same  means  that  have  been  suggested  above  for  deter- 
mining the  type  of  school  in  which  the  teacher  should  be 
placed. 

The  critical  point.  The  critical  point  in  the  measuring  of 
the  teacher's  efficiency  is  that  objective  data  and  thorough 
analysis  of  all  the  elements  involved  must  take  the  place  of 
subjective  impressions.  Objective  data  and  careful  analy- 
ses cannot  be  secured  through  a  few  hasty  inspectional  trips 
or  visits  to  the  teacher's  classroom.  The  rating  of  teachers 
on  inspectional  data  and  impressions  is  educationally  un< 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  THE  TEACHER    229 

scientific,  and  the  practice  should  be  replaced  by  that  thor- 
ough supervision  which  can  guarantee  reliable  measurement 
of  teaching  efficiency. 

Chapter  summary.  The  worth  of  the  teacher  can  be  esti- 
mated only  by  a  careful  study  of  the  actual  teaching  per- 
formances, and  by  accurate  measurement  of  the  attainments 
of  the  pupils  which  can  be  accounted  for  in  terms  of  the 
teacher's  work.  Objective  data  must  be  the  basis  for  all 
of  these  estimates  and  measurements.  Definite  standards 
must  be  set  up  that  shall  include  only  such  items  as  admit  of 
objective  measurement.  The  large  items  of  such  standards 
might  be:  intellectual  ability,  scholarship,  ability  to  express 
thoughts,  teaching  ability,  ability  to  manage  and  discipline, 
personal  appearance,  qualities  of  leadership,  professional 
attitude,  and  type  of  school  and  type  of  community  to 
which  the  teacher  is  best  adapted.  The  rating  of  teachers 
cannot  be  adequately  done  through  hurried  inspectional 
visits,  but  must  be  accomplished  through  adequate  super- 
vision and  scientific  measurements. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Give  ten  illustrations,  from  your  experience,  of  practical  evidences  of 
intellectual  ability. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  subjects  that  would  make  the  best  general  back- 
ground for  all  elementary-school  teaching. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  special  subjects,  including  the  professional  training, 
that  would  adequately  prepare  elementary-school  teachers. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  subjects  that  would  make  the  best  general  back- 
ground for  junior  or  senior  high-school  teachers. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  special  subjects,  including  the  professional  training, 
that  would  adequately  prepare  junior  or  senior  high  school  teachers. 

6.  Give  two  cases,  from  experience,  in  which  the  teacher  failed  to  make 
himself  understood  on  account  of  failure  to  employ  a  vocabulary 
adapted  to  his  pupils. 

7.  Give  two  cases,  from  experience,  in  which  the  teacher's  fluency  or  lack 
of  fluency  of  language  contributed  to  or  hindered  the  readiness  of 
comprehension  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

8.  Give  two  concrete  caaea  to  illustrate  how  the  quality  and  control  of 


230  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

the  teacher's  voice  materially  aided  or  interfered  with  making  his 
thoughts  readily  understood. 

9.  Give  two  examples  of  actual  teaching  performances  that  showed  the 
mastery  of  the  principles  of  method  involved.  Give  two  examples 
that  showed  the  lack  of  such  mastery. 

10.  Give  two  examples  of  actual  teaching  performances  that  showed  mas- 
tery over  the  employment  of  devices.     Give  two  cases  that  showed 
the  hick  of  such  mastery. 

11.  Give  two  cases  of  actual  teaching  that  exhibited  good  technique. 
Give  two  cases  that  exhibited  much  poor  technique. 

12.  Give  concrete  illustrations  of  reactions  of  pupils  that  demonstrate 
properly-motivated  interest  in  the  subject. 

13.  Devise  a  set  of  standards  that  you  would  employ  in  measuring  the 
teacher's  ability  to  test  and  examine  pupils. 

14.  Give  ten  concrete  disciplinary  cases  of  the  kind  you  would  take  as 
evidence  of  the  teacher's  ability  in  disciplining. 

15.  Give  two  cases  to  illustrate  how  dress  may  affect  the  teacher's  effi- 
ciency. 

16.  Give  six  concrete  illustrations  of  the  sort  of  leadership  that  is  desira- 
ble in  teachers. 

17.  Give  five  illustrations  of  unprofessional  attitude  on  the  part  of  teach- 
ers. 

18.  Construct  a  score  card  that  can  be  used  over  a  long  enough  period  of 
time  to  accumulate  accurate  measurements  of  all  the  items  you  would 
include  in  your  standards  for  grading  the  teacher's  efficiency.     Com- 
pare this  card  with  those  that  have  been  devised  for  use  on  inspectional 
visits. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION 

The  need  of  evaluating  supervision.  Supervision  has 
come  into  the  public  schools  and  into  training  schools  in  re- 
sponse to  a  pressing  demand  for  the  improvement  of  teach- 
ers during  then*  period  of  service  and  for  the  better  training 
of  teachers  before  they  enter  the  teaching  ranks.  It  has 
come  in,  however,  as  most  things  have  come  into  the  educa- 
tional field,  on  broad  general  ideas  and  theories.  Gradually 
the  work  of  supervision  has  become  more  and  more  specific 
and  less  and  less  general,  until  to-day  it  is  recognized  as  a 
definite  educational  science  distinctly  set  off  from  the  job  of 
teaching,  on  the  one  hand,  and  from  the  job  of  administra- 
tion, on  the  other  hand.  The  growth  and  development  of 
this  relatively  new  science  will  be  determined  by  the  wortli- 
whileness  of  the  contribution  that  it  makes  to  the  training  of 
teachers  and  to  the  improvement  of  the  work  of  the  public 
schools.  Moreover,  the  value  of  the  contribution  that  is 
made  to  education  by  supervision  can  be  determined  only 
by  definitely  and  accurately  measuring  the  results  of  the 
various  supervising  activities.  The  results  of  the  supervis- 
ing activities  cannot  be  adequately  measured  without  the 
employment  of  a  set  of  standards  that  are  based  upon  objec- 
tive data.  Therefore  the  chief  purpose  of  this  closing  chap- 
ter is  to  set  forth  what  seem  to  be  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples that  should  underlie  any  program  of  procedure  in 
attempting  to  measure  the  work  of  supervision  adequately. 

Taking  stock  as  to  supervisory  efficiency.  One  of  the 
first  facts  that  must  be  recognized  is  that  just  as  poor  and 
inefficient  teachers  have  come  into  the  profession,  and  con- 


232  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

tinue  In  the  profession,  just  so  have  poor  and  inefficient  su- 
pervisors got  into  the  profession  and  continue  hi  it  to  the 
detriment  of  both  the  science  of  teaching  and  the  science  of 
supervision.  Hence,  when  the  results  of  supervision  begin 
to  be  accurately  and  adequately  measured,  the  natural  out- 
come will  be  the  disclosure  of  very  glaring  deficiencies.  This 
was  exactly  the  case  when  the  work  of  teachers  was  submitted 
to  anything  like  a  critical  test  and  measured  objectively  in- 
stead of  taking  mere  subjective  impressions  as  the  criterion. 
The  schools  were  not  closed,  however,  and  the  teachers  were 
not  discarded  as  unprofitable  means  of  promoting  the  edu- 
cation of  the  rising  generations.  Quite  the  contrary. 

The  very  fact  that  the  teaching  activities  could  be  objec- 
tively measured  disclosed  the  possibility  of  overcoming  the 
deficiencies  and  of  removing  them  through  training.  The 
same  result  can  be  expected  with  regard  to  supervision; 
namely,  that  the  very  fact  that  supervision  can  and  will  be 
measured  objectively  will  disclose  the  possibility  and  the 
opportunity  for  improving  the  science  of  supervision. 
Therefore  the  more  thoroughly  and  in  detail  the  work  of 
supervision  is  measured,  the  sooner  these  weaknesses  will  be 
eliminated  through  training.  Another  fact  which  is  supple- 
mentary to  the  fact  that  has  just  been  discussed  needs  to  be 
kept  in  mind.  This  is  the  fact  that  just  as  poor  teaching 
may  make  the  work  of  poor  pupils  still  poorer  and  interfere 
with  the  progress  of  the  better  pupils,  just  so  may  poor  su- 
pervision make  poor  teaching  poorer  and  interfere  with  the 
progress  of  the  better  teachers.  The  true  worth  of  the 
teacher  as  a  means  to  the  education  of  pupils,  however, 
came  to  be  recognized  beyond  the  shadow  of  a  doubt 
through  the  excellent  work  of  individual  teachers.  These 
good  teachers,  scattered  here  and  there  throughout  the  pro- 
fession, have  been  the  leaven  that  has  saved  the  whole  pro- 
fessional lump  from  falling  flat.  What  has  been  true  of  the 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    233 

teaching  ranks  can  be  predicted  with  full  assurance  of  the 
supervisory  ranks.  Despite  the  presence  in  the  field  of 
many  poorly  prepared  and  ineffective  supervisors,  the  work 
of  the  ever-increasing  number  of  excellent  supervisors  will 
save  the  day  and  secure  the  establishment  of  supervision  as 
an  absolutely  essential  part  of  the  educational  machinery. 
This  fact  is  another  reason  why  supervisors  and  administra- 
tive officers  should  be  vitally  interested  in  the  development 
of  a  definite  set  of  standards  for  measuring  the  work  of  su- 
pervision, and  all  should  be  concerned  with  making  the  find- 
ings of  such  objective  measurements  known  to  the  educa- 
tional public. 

Two  steps  involved  in  measuring  supervisory  efficiency. 
The  problem  of  measuring  supervisory  efficiency  resolves 
itself  primarily  into  two  definite  steps  or  divisions;  namely, 
the  setting-up  of  a  set  of  fundamental  principles  and  the 
organizing  of  a  program  of  procedure  based  on  these  princi- 
ples. The  principles  involved  in  the  measurement  of  super- 
vision must  necessarily  be  the  same  for  all  cases  and  for  all 
educational  situations  hi  which  supervisory  activities  are 
carried  on.  On  the  other  hand,  programs  of  procedure  that 
may  be  employed  in  applying  these  principles  to  the  meas- 
urement of  supervisory  work  will  vary  according  to  the  con- 
ditions prevailing  in  the  various  school  situations.  The 
establishment  of  a  set  of  general  principles  requires  common 
agreement,  while  the  organization  of  a  program  of  procedure 
must  be  largely  a  matter  of  individual  judgment.  The  first 
objective,  then,  in  this  discussion  is  to  set  forth  a  body  of 
principles  or  fundamental  considerations  that  may  very 
well  be  accepted  as  a  guide  in  establishing  programs  of  pro- 
cedure in  measuring  supervisory  efficiency.  The  second  ob- 
jective is  to  suggest  programs  of  procedure  that  may  be 
helpful  in  measuring  the  work  of  supervision  in  different 
types  of  educational  situations. 


834  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

I.  THE  PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN  MEASURING 
SUPERVISORY  EFFICIENCY 

The  fundamental  considerations  that  should  guide  all 
administrators  and  supervisors  in  measuring  the  work  of 
supervision  carried  on  in  their  schools  are  necessarily  few  in 
number.  They  will  be  stated  as  concisely  as  possible  and  will 
be  discussed  somewhat  briefly.  The  ultimate  interpreta- 
tion of  each  principle  must  necessarily  rest  with  the  individ- 
ual superintendent,  principal,  supervisor,  and  director  who 
works  out  the  application  of  these  principles  in  the  form  of  a 
program  of  procedure  that  is  practicable  in  his  particular 
school  situation. 

Principle  One:  Set  up  definite  attainable  goals  or  out- 
comes that  are  to  be  realized  by  means  of  the  supervisory 
activities.  This  principle  seems  quite  obvious  from  the 
mere  statement  of  the  point.  It  involves  more,  however, 
than  appears  at  first  thought.  The  setting-up  of  definite 
outcomes  that  are  to  be  realized  through  supervisory  activi- 
ties requires  a  definite  recognition  of  the  status  of  these  out- 
comes at  the  outset  of  the  undertaking.  For  example,  sup- 
pose that  the  superintendent  desires  to  improve  the  work  in 
penmanship  in  his  schools  and  secures  a  special  supervisor  for 
that  purpose.  The  superintendent  needs  to  have  some  defi- 
nite evidences  as  to  the  status  of  handwriting  in  his  schools 
when  the  supervisor  takes  charge  of  the  work.  He  must 
also  have  a  clear  idea  of  what  may  reasonably  be  accom- 
plished through  effective  supervision.  Then,  when  he 
checks  the  status  of  handwriting  at  the  close  of  the  year 
against  the  status  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  he  has  a 
fairly  accurate  idea  as  to  the  extent  to  which  his  expecta- 
tions have  been  realized. 

Principle  Two :  Designate  definite  types  of  objective  data 
that  may  be  taken  as  evidence  of  supervisory  efficiency. 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    9S5 

This  principle  is  a  very  important  one,  for  it  aims  at  getting 
away  from  general  impressions  and  subjective  influences. 
Then,  too,  it  is  highly  practical.  The  work  of  supervision 
ought  to  secure  tangible  results  that  can  be  expressed  in 
concrete  form.  These  concrete  evidences  ought  not  to  be  so 
difficult  to  secure  as  to  make  the  application  of  this  principle 
at  all  impossible  or  to  any  extent  impracticable. 

Principle  Three:  Secure  designated  types  of  objective 
data  from  as  many  accurate  and  reliable  sources  as  possible. 
The  types  of  objective  data  and  the  reliable  sources  from 
which  they  may  be  secured  will  vary  according  to  the  con- 
ditions prevailing  in  the  various  educational  situations  in 
which  supervisory  work  is  undertaken.  It  must  be  recog- 
nized that  the  extent  to  which  this  principle  can  be  applied 
in  any  program  of  procedure  in  measuring  the  results  of  su- 
pervision will  be  determined  largely  by  the  time  limitations 
forced  upon  the  administrator  by  his  many  other  adminis- 
trative duties.  The  validity  of  the  principle,  however,  is 
unimpaired  by  the  fact  that  existing  conditions  often  make 
it  physically  impossible  to  do  much  toward  embodying  it  in 
a  specific  program  of  administration.  The  important  point 
is  that  the  administrator  should  recognize  the  validity  of  the 
principle  and  employ  the  best  devices  and  technique  that 
are  possible  and  practicable  in  applying  it  to  his  particular 
situation.  If  the  administrator  recognizes  types  and  sources 
of  securing  objective  data  that*  would  in  his  judgment  be 
worth  while,  but  which  are  impossible  for  him  to  secure  un- 
der present  conditions,  he  may  find  it  possible  to  make  his 
school  board  realize  the  situation  and  thus  secure  such  pro- 
visions for  administrative  assistance  that  he  would  be  able 
more  effectively  to  apply  this  principle  in  the  measurement 
of  supervisory  efficiency.  Very  much  depends  upon  the 
worth-whileness  of  the  attainable  goals  set  up  to  be  realized 
through  the  supervisory  activities.  If  these  outcomes  are 


236  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

of  far-reaching  importance  in  the  future  growth  and  devel- 
opment of  the  schools,  then  the  administrator  might  feel 
justified  in  expending  a  great  amount  of  time  and  energy  in 
securing  ample  evidences  of  their  realization.  If,  however, 
these  outcomes,  while  highly  valuable,  do  not  outrank  a 
number  of  other  outcomes  that  must  be  secured  by  other 
means,  then,  to  be  sure,  they  can  claim  only  a  due  portion  of 
the  administrator's  time,  and  excessive  provision  cannot  be 
made  for  demonstrating  their  realization.  Considering  all 
these  points,  it  becomes  clear  that  the  interpretation  of  the 
word  "  possible  "  must  rest  with  each  administrator  who 
undertakes  to  inaugurate  a  specific  program  of  procedure 
for  the  measurement  of  supervisory  efficiency. 

Principle  Four:  Study  the  supervisory  performances 
themselves  as  evidence  of  the  efficiency  of  supervision. 
The  application  of  this  principle  involves,  first,  a  quantita- 
tive study  of  the  duties  performed  by  the  supervisor,  and, 
second,  a  qualitative  study  of  supervisory  performances. 
The  quantitative  phase  of  this  study  is  most  readily  accom- 
plished and  is  one  that  the  administrator  is  not  likely  to 
neglect.  He  depends  upon  it  to  a  great  extent  as  the  means 
of  determining  whether  or  not  the  supervisor  has  faithfully 
attempted  to  accomplish  the  outcomes  for  which  he  was 
employed  in  the  schools.  Take  the  example  of  the  writing 
supervisor  given  above  as  an  illustration.  The  adminis- 
trator wants  to  know  what  instructions  have  been  worked 
out  by  the  supervisor  and  put  in  permanent  form  for  the 
teachers;  what  details  of  instruction  have  been  given 
through  a  series  of  conferences  with  groups  of  teachers;  how 
much  time  the  supervisor  has  spent  in  each  classroom  either 
teaching  the  class  or  directing  the  work  of  the  teacher;  etc. 
In  other  words,  he  wants  to  know  as  fully  as  possible  all  the 
duties  performed  by  the  supervisor  and  the  extent  to  which 
each  duty  has  been  performed.  If  in  his  judgment  these 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    237 

various  performances  are  worth  while,  he  has  some  basis  for 
believing  that  the  improvement  in  writing  that  may  be  ap- 
parent at  the  close  of  the  year  has  been  largely  due  to  the 
work  of  supervision.  Moreover,  he  has  some  basis  for  be- 
lieving that  particular  cases  that  show  little  or  no  improve- 
ment may  be  accounted  for  on  some  other  ground  than  that 
of  inefficient  supervision.  The  very  quantity,  then,  of  su- 
pervisory performances  may  be  taken  as  one  of  the  valid 
evidences  of  the  efficiency  of  supervision. 

The  qualitative  study  of  supervisory  performances  is  not 
so  readily  accomplished  and  is  dependent  largely  upon  the 
time  limitations  and  geographical  conditions  under  which 
the  administrator  works.  The  qualitative  study  can  be 
made  only  by  actually  observing  the  supervisor  at  work 
with  the  teachers  and  in  the  schools.  If  the  administrator 
has  several  supervisors  in  his  schools,  the  possibility  of  ob- 
serving the  work  of  each  is  necessarily  very  limited.  This 
fact,  however,  does  not  invalidate  the  principle.  Every 
administrator  will  no  doubt  agree  that  to  judge  adequately 
the  quality  of  supervisory  performance  one  must  have  suffi- 
cient opportunity  to  study  the  actual  performances.  The 
fact  must  be  recognized,  however,  that  no  matter  how  im- 
portant the  administrator  may  consider  the  qualitative 
study  of  supervisory  activities,  he  is  often  so  limited  by 
time  and  distance  that  he  cannot  apply  this  principle  to  any 
great  extent  in  a  specific  program  for  measuring  the  effi- 
ciency of  supervision.  The  important  point  is  for  the  ad- 
ministrator to  determine  the  importance  of  this  study  as 
compared  with  the  other  principles  and  to  make  whatever 
provision  is  possible  for  its  application,  and  finally  to  make 
its  application  just  as  effective  as  conditions  permit. 

The  consideration  of  principles  gives  psychological  per- 
spective. The  value  of  psychological  perspective  is  in  gen- 
eral recognized  as  meeting  one  of  the  essential  needs  in 


238  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

establishing  good  practice.  The  above  body  of  principles 
furnishes  such  a  perspective  to  the  administrator  who  is  un- 
dertaking to  establish  a  constructive  and  progressive  pro- 
gram of  procedure  in  measuring  the  efficiency  of  supervision. 
These  principles  present  a  coherent  scheme,  a  definite  back- 
ground against  which  any  particular  supervisory  situation 
may  be  projected  to  determine  the  limitations  of  the  pro- 
gram or  plan  of  measurement  that  is  practicable  in  that 
particular  situation.  The  projection  of  particular  situa- 
tions against  such  a  background  of  principles  insures  that 
whatever  is  undertaken  in  the  plan  of  measuring  supervisory 
efficiency  will  be  psychologically  sound.  This  will  be  just  as 
true  of  a  brief  program  as  of  the  most  detailed  and  exten- 
sive program.  In  other  words,  the  difference  between 
measurement  programs  will  be  that  of  extent  and  detail  and 
not  a  difference  in  content  or  principle  of  procedure.  Fur- 
thermore, if  programs  of  procedure  in  measurement  of  su- 
pervisory efficiency  are  constructed  on  such  a  body  of  prin- 
ciples, they  may  be  expanded  and  developed  without  change 
of  basis  as  changing  conditions  in  school  situations  make 
possible  the  development  of  more  adequate  facilities  for 
conducting  the  work  of  the  supervision  of  instruction. 

II.  PROGRAMS  FOR  MEASURING  SUPERVISORY  EFFICIENCY 

The  fact  has  already  been  stated  that  the  ultimate  inter- 
pretation of  the  above  body  of  principles  will  rest  with  the 
individual  administrator  who  undertakes  to  measure  the 
work  of  supervision  systematically  and  definitely  .  Each 
administrator  will  necessarily  be  limited  in  his  formulation 
of  a  plan  by  the  conditions  prevailing  in  his  particular  school 
system.  This  fact  makes  it  impossible  for  any  program  to 
be  outlined  that  would  exactly  fit  any  situation  other  than 
the  one  upon  which  it  is  based.  The  only  helpful  thing  that 
seems  feasible  to  do  is  to  outline  programs  that  have  proved 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    239 

effective  in  the  various  types  of  supervisory  situations  and 
to  suggest  possible  modifications  according  to  the  conditions 
prevailing  in  the  particular  system  hi  which  any  of  these 
plans  are  adopted. 

Measuring  the  supervisory  activities  of  the  superintend- 
ent. There  are  many  school  systems  in  which  the  only  pro- 
vision yet  made  for  the  supervision  of  instruction  is  that 
afforded  by  allowing  the  superintendent  part  time  for  the 
visitation  of  classroom  work.  The  superintendent  in  such 
situations  usually  teaches  part  time  in  the  high  school  and 
divides  the  remainder  of  his  time  between  the  necessary  ad- 
ministrative duties  for  which  he  is  responsible  and  the  visi- 
tation of  teachers  at  work.  As  a  rule  the  superintendent 
desires  under  such  conditions  to  give  all  of  his  time  to  ad- 
ministrative and  supervisory  duties.  This  conception  of 
the  superintendent's  function  is  growing,  not  only  in  the 
minds  of  superintendents,  but  also  in  the  minds  of  school 
boards;  hence  the  tendency  to-day  is  for  superintendents  to 
seek  more  and  more  relief  from  clerical  and  other  routine 
administrative  duties,  on  the  one  hand,  and  entire  relief 
from  teaching,  on  the  other,  and  to  give  more  and  more 
time  to  the  supervision  of  instruction  as  the  best  means  of 
developing  the  work  of  the  public  schools.  In  order  to  se- 
cure the  maximum  of  opportunity  for  doing  supervisory 
work,  the  superintendent  must  convince  his  board  that  the 
supervision  of  instruction  is  of  more  importance  than  cer- 
tain administrative  details  that  might  very  well  be  taken 
care  of  by  competent  clerical  assistance  or  by  board  com- 
mittees. The  most  convincing  evidence  that  can  be  pre- 
sented to  any  board  is  that  of  tangible  improvement  in  the 
work  of  the  schools  that  is  due  directly  to  efficient  supervision. 
Therefore  the  superintendent  in  this  type  of  situation  needs  to 
formulate  a  plan  that  will  enable  him  to  measure  the  results  of 
his  supervisory  activities  and  to  present  them  to  his  board. 


240  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

Points  to  be  kept  in  mind.  The  first  point  that  the  super- 
intendent should  keep  in  mind  is  the  wisdom  of  limiting  his 
supervisory  undertakings  to  very  definite  and  tangible  goals 
that  are  sure  of  attainment.  For  example,  the  superintend- 
ent may  realize  that  his  schools  are  below  the  standard  of 
other  schools  in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic.  A  survey  of  the 
status  of  the  case  may  convince  him  that  this  condition  is 
due  to  a  poorly  constructed  course  of  study  and  to  inferior 
teaching.  He  can  now  proceed  with  some  assurance  to 
formulate  a  plan  for  measuring  the  supervisory  activities 
that  he  plans  to  carry  on  as  the  means  of  bringing  about  the 
desired  improvement. 

The  following  plan  is  suggestive  of  what  might  well  be 
undertaken  in  such  a  case  and  will  prove  economical  as  well 
as  satisfactory: 

A.  Goals  or  outcomes  to  be  attained. 

a.  A  course  of  study  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  schools 
and  in  keeping  with  the  modern  aims  of  public  school 
education. 
6.  A  higher  standard  of  scholarship  or  efficiency  in  the 

learning  of  arithmetic. 

c.  A  higher  standard  of  efficiency  in  the  teaching  of  arith- 
metic. 

The  status  of  each  of  these  goals  should  be  definitely  es- 
tablished before  the  work  of  supervision  begins.  A  survey 
of  the  course  of  study  will  readily  disclose  how  many  pages 
of  material  there  are  that  are  obsolete  or  poorly  adapted  to 
each  grade,  and  how  many  pages  of  really  worth-while  usa- 
ble material  the  course  contains.  These  results  can  be 
tabulated  grade  by  grade  on  a  chart  and  graphically  pre- 
sented to  the  attention  of  the  board  and  the  corps  of  teach- 
ers. The  chart  should  be  so  constructed  that  the  status  of 
the  course  of  study  at  the  close  of  the  school  year  can  be 
tabulated  on  the  same  chart  in  contrast  to  the  status  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year. 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    241 

The  status  of  the  second  goal  can  be  shown  readily  by 
plotting  the  monthly  averages  in  arithmetic  grade  by  grade 
for  one  or  two  preceding  years.  Standard  tests  in  arith- 
metic may  also  be  given  and  the  grade  averages  plotted  on  a 
single  graph.  All  this  tabular  work  can  be  done  by  clerical 
help  or  by  the  aid  of  the  teachers,  so  that  the  data  can  be 
economically  and  yet  accurately  compiled.  Here,  again, 
the  charts  used  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  enable  the 
tabulations  of  similar  data  at  the  close  of  the  year  to  be  re- 
corded on  the  same  charts  in  contrast  with  the  first  data. 

The  status  of  the  third  goal  cannot  be  so  readily  estab- 
lished at  the  outset,  and  in  the  end  it  is  necessarily  bound 
up  with  the  second  outcome.  Nevertheless,  it  will  be  well 
worth  while  to  set  up  some  basis  of  contrast  other  than  that 
afforded  by  the  standing  of  the  pupils.  The  most  feasible 
basis,  perhaps,  is  that  of  the  teachers'  general  success  grades 
or  ranking  marks.  If  arithmetic  is  one  of  the  most  poorly 
taught  subjects,  then  no  doubt  the  general  success  grades  or 
ranking  marks  are  a  fair  measure  of  the  teachers'  success  in 
teaching  arithmetic,  for  it  seems  fair  to  assume  that  the  suc- 
cess of  the  teachers  in  teaching  arithmetic  must  have  had  a 
good  deal  to  do  with  determining  their  success  grades  or 
ranking  marks.  One  of  the  purposes  of  the  supervision  of 
instruction  should  be  to  improve  the  teaching  to  the  extent 
that  ultimately  all  the  teachers  will  be  in  the  highest  rank. 
It  is  not  only  possible  but  desirable  to  have  wide  ranges  of 
individual  differences  in  a  group  of  E  teachers.  A  general 
plot  of  the  preceding  year's  success  grades  or  ranking  marks 
of  the  whole  corps  of  teachers  may  be  made  at  the  outset 
and  a  contrasting  plot  made  upon  the  same  chart  at  the 
close  of  the  year  when  the  new  success  grades  or  ranking 
marks  have  been  issued. 

Types  of  data  that  will  be  accepted  as  proof  of  supervisory 
efficiency.  In  this  case  practically  all  the  essential  forms  of 


242  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

data  have  been  designated  in  establishing  the  status  of  the 
objectives  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  and  in  provid- 
ing for  the  contrasting  data  showing  the  status  at  the  close 
of  the  year.  Other  types  of  data  might  be  employed,  but 
the  general  results  would  not  be  materially  changed  by  their 
use;  therefore  the  use  of  such  data  would  consume  time  and 
energy  that  would  be  largely  lost. 

Sources  from  which  valid  data  may  be  secured.  Here, 
again,  the  establishment  of  the  status  of  the  goals  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  and  the  provision  for  the  tabulation  of 
the  contrasting  status  of  these  goals  at  the  close  of  the  year 
have  practically  determined  the  sources  from  which  all  the 
necessary  data  will  be  secured.  Nothing  worth  while  will 
be  added  to  the  general  results  by  securing  more  detailed 
data  from  various  other  sources,  such  as  individual  records 
of  pupils,  etc.  Moreover,  the  securing  of  data  from  other 
sources  would  likely  require  too  much  time  and  energy  to  be 
of  practical  value  in  the  whole  undertaking. 

Consideration  of  the  supervisory  activities.  This  is  an 
especially  important  point  in  the  case  of  the  superintendent 
who  is  seeking  to  secure  the  maximum  of  opportunity  for 
doing  supervisory  work.  He  cannot  very  well  present  an 
estimate  of  the  quality  of  his  supervisory  performances,  but 
he  can  give  a  very  accurate  account  of  the  actual  duties  per- 
formed and  the  time  spent  in  doing  them.  Such  an  account 
will  hi  a  considerable  degree  be  an  indication  of  the  efficiency 
with  which  the  work  has  been  done.  The  account  should  be 
a  graphic  one  and  largely  mathematical,  since  it  is  a  quanti- 
tative measurement.  The  account  should  include  the  fol- 
lowing items: 

a.  Number  of  teachers'  meetings  held  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cussing the  course  of  study  and  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  and 
the  amount  of  time  spent  in  such  meetings.  A  very  good  plan 
would  be  to  divide  the  teachers  into  two  or  three  groups  and 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    248 

meet  each  for  an  hour  every  two  weeks.  This  could  be  done 
by  meeting  the  primary  group  (first-,  second-,  and  third- 
grade  teachers)  on  Wednesday,  the  intermediate  grade 
teachers  (fourth-,  fifth-,  and  sixth-)  on  Thursday,  and  the 
upper-grade  or  junior  high  school  teachers  on  Friday.  If 
these  meetings  are  held  systematically  throughout  the  year, 
the  time  spent  would  be  fifty-four  hours.  Each  group 
would  constitute  a  committee  on  the  course  of  study  for 
their  grades  with  the  superintendent  as  chairman  and  leader. 
He  would  present  to  each  group  a  tentative  outline  of  ma- 
terials covering  the  course  for  the  following  two  weeks.  The 
group  would  discuss  the  outline  and  suggest  modifications. 
Agreement  would  be  reached  as  to  the  exact  body  of  mate- 
rials to  be  used,  and  then  the  superintendent  would  lead  the 
discussion  on  the  teaching  of  the  particular  subject-matter 
of  the  course  that  had  been  decided  upon  for  the  following 
two  weeks. 

A  second  item  that  should  go  along  with  this  one  is  that 
of  a  mathematical  estimate  of  the  number  of  hours  spent  in 
the  preparing  of  these  course  of  study  outlines  that  are  pre- 
sented at  these  group  meetings.  A  conservative  estimate 
would  be  two  to  three  hours  spent  in  preparation  of  the  ma- 
terial for  each  group  meeting.  This  would  mean  one  hun- 
dred eight  to  one  hundred  sixty-two  hours  of  individual 
work  on  the  part  of  the  superintendent. 

b.  The  number  of  hours  spent  in  individual  conferences 
with  teachers  to  discuss  the  actual  teaching  observed  by  the  su- 
perintendent. These  conferences  will  likely  be  short  and 
more  or  less  spontaneous  as  the  character  of  the  work  seems 
to  demand.  The  superintendent  need  not  necessarily  keep 
an  exact  mathematical  record  of  these  conferences,  but  he 
should  make  a  fairly  accurate  estimate  at  least  each  week  of 
the  amount  of  time  so  spent.  These  amounts  could  then 
easily  be  totaled  for  the  year  and  recorded  in  hours.  It 


244  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

would  be  a  good  plan  to  give,  in  addition  to  the  total  time 
spent  in  individual  conferences  with  teachers,  the  average 
amount  of  time  each  week  per  teacher  spent  in  such  confer- 
ences. 

c.  The  number  of  hours  spent  in  actual  classroom  visita- 
tions. This  is  a  very  important  item  and  should  be  accu- 
rately and  graphically  recorded.  The  superintendent 
should  keep  a  daily  record  of  this  time  and  should  show  the 
final  record  by  weeks;  the  average  number  of  hours  per  day; 
and  the  average  number  of  hours  per  teacher  each  week.  A 
grand  total  may  also  be  given,  but  the  significant  picture 
for  the  school  board  will  be  the  graphic  representation  of 
the  time  spent  each  week  per  teacher  and  the  average  time 
spent  daily  in  such  supervisory  capacity.  The  actual  record 
of  how  the  superintendent  has  spent  his  time  will  be  rather 
tangible  and  convincing  evidence  of  his  efficiency  as  a  su- 
pervisor. 

The  above  items  practically  cover  the  ground  of  super- 
vising activities  that  are  worth  while  recording  and  present- 
ing as  a  measure  of  the  efficiency  of  the  work.  They  are 
only  suggestive  of  a  rational  plan  that  might  well  be  fol- 
lowed in  realizing  the  goals  set  up.  The  superintendent 
who  successfully  carries  out  such  an  undertaking  will  un- 
doubtedly convince  his  board  that  supervision  is  worth 
while  and  that  he  should  be  given  more  time  and  opportu- 
nity for  such  duties.  He  could  follow  up  this  piece  of  work 
with  similar  goals  in  regard  to  other  subjects.  Reading  or 
language,  for  example,  might  be  undertaken  next  and  dealt 
with  in  much  the  same  manner  as  has  been  suggested  for 
arithmetic.  A  general  improvement  in  the  teaching  of  all 
subjects  might  be  the  undertaking.  The  training  and  devel- 
opment of  beginning  teachers  might  well  be  the  chief  task 
to  be  accomplished  through  supervision.  The  exact  under- 
taking in  each  case  should  be  determined  by  the  particular 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    245 

conditions  and  the  most  urgent  needs  of  the  schools.  The 
main  point  is  that  the  undertaking  should  be  limited  to  a 
possible  program.  Then  some  such  plan  as  has  been  sug- 
gested above  will  enable  the  administrator  to  present  ob- 
jective evidences  of  the  results  of  his  supervisory  activities. 
Measuring  the  supervisory  work  of  the  assistant  superin- 
tendent, the  supervising  principal,  and  the  building  principal. 
The  supervisory  activities  carried  on  by  the  assistant  super- 
intendent, the  supervising  principal,  and  the  building  prin- 
cipal are  similar  in  character  to  those  carried  on  by  the 
superintendent  under  the  conditions  just  described  above. 
These  school  officials  may  be  employed  to  give  practically 
all  their  time  to  the  supervision  of  instruction.  As  a  rule, 
however,  they  are  held  responsible  for  certain  administra- 
tive duties,  hence  they  do  not  give  quite  all  their  time  to 
supervision.  The  conditions  under  which  they  work  are  so 
similar  to  those  under  which  the  superintendent  works,  in 
such  a  system  as  has  just  been  described,  that  the  same  sort 
of  program  will  prove  adequate  and  practical  to  meet  their 
needs  in  measuring  the  efficiency  of  their  supervisory  per- 
formances. Just  as  the  superintendent  can  account  to  his 
board  for  his  supervisory  endeavors,  so  can  the  assistant 
superintendent,  the  supervising  principal,  and  the  building 
principal  account  to  the  administrative  officer  or  officers,  as 
the  case  may  be,  under  whose  direction  he  is  working,  and  to 
whom  he  is  accountable  for  the  success  of  his  work.  The 
important  point  in  any  case  is  that  the  supervisor  shall  be 
responsible  for  a  sufficiently  limited  district  or  area  to  en- 
able him  to  set  up  definite  attainable  goals.  These  goals 
may  and  should  vary  according  to  the  needs  of  the  schools. 
The  program  for  measuring  the  efficiency  with  which  the 
goals  have  been  attained  can  be  relatively  simple,  as  the  plan 
set  forth  above  indicates.  The  superior  administrative  offi- 
cer may,  if  he  so  desires,  devise  other  means  for  checking 


246  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

up  the  efficiency  of  the  supervisory  work  carried  on  by  the 
assistant  superintendent,  supervising  principal,  and  build- 
ing principal,  but  as  a  rule  he  is  so  occupied  with  important 
administrative  duties  that  he  cannot  afford  to  take  the  time 
for  devising  and  administering  a  detailed  scheme  for  check- 
ing the  work  of  supervision.  Furthermore,  the  objective 
evidences  presented  by  the  plan  suggested  above  are  relia- 
ble enough  and  detailed  enough  to  establish  the  worth  and 
efficiency  of  the  supervisory  activities. 

Measuring  the  supervisory  activities  of  special  super- 
visors. This  type  of  supervision  was  one  of  the  first  to  be 
introduced  into  the  public  schools  and  it  is  one  of  the  com- 
monest now  in  practice.  Most  school  systems  of  any  size 
have  special  supervisors  of  music,  writing,  drawing,  etc., 
while  the  larger  school  systems  have  multiples  of  such  spe- 
cial supervisors  according  to  the  number  of  times  their 
school  areas  duplicate  the  smaller  school  system  areas.  That 
is  to  say,  when  the  supervision  of  instruction  is  undertaken 
seriously  in  a  large  school  system,  it  must  be  divided  into 
districts  similar  in  size  to  that  of  a  smaller  system  in  which 
the  entire  corps  of  teachers  can  be  adequately  supervised  in 
a  special  line  of  work  by  a  single  supervisor.  This  being  the 
case,  a  program  of  procedure  that  will  prove  adequate  for 
measuring  the  efficiency  of  supervision  in  one  system  will 
prove  just  as  satisfactory  in  any  other  system  in  which  such 
special  supervision  is  carried  on.  The  following  plan  is 
relatively  simple  and  yet  sufficiently  detailed  and  objec- 
tive as  thoroughly  to  establish  the  worth  of  the  supervisory 
activities: 

Definite  goals  set  up  for  the  special  supervisor  to  attain. 
These  goals  will  usually  be  the  organization  of  a  course  of 
study  in  the  special  subject  that  will  be  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  particular  school  system  and  to  the  development  of 
the  teaching  of  the  subject.  If  the  line  of  work  is  just  being 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    247 

introduced,  there  will  be  no  previous  course  of  study  with 
which  to  compare  the  one  worked  out  by  the  supervisor.  In 
this  event,  the  course  may  be  compared  with  well-estab- 
lished courses  in  the  same  subject  that  are  offered  in  other 
similar  school  systems.  If  this  does  not  seem  practicable, 
the  course  can  be  judged  quite  accurately  on  its  own  merits. 
If  the  course  is  to  be  judged  on  its  own  merits  alone,  it  should 
consist  of  what  has  actually  been  done  throughout  the  year, 
and  should  not  be  the  theoretical  course  that  may  be  pro- 
posed by  the  supervisor,  but  not  actually  accomplished. 

The  problem  of  developing  the  teaching  of  the  special  sub- 
ject ordinarily  resolves  itself  into  two  phases,  especially 
when  the  line  of  work  is  new  to  the  system.  These  two 
phases  are :  the  training  of  the  teachers  in  actual  knowledge 
of  the  subject-matter  of  the  subject,  and  the  training  of 
the  teachers  in  method,  devices,  and  technique  of  teaching 
the  subject.  The  status  of  the  teachers  in  knowledge  of  the 
subject  and  in  teaching  skill  in  the  particular  subject  may 
not  be  on  record;  hence,  in  respect  to  these  two  items,  the 
status  of  the  teachers  at  the  close  of  the  school  year  will  be 
the  chief  evidence  upon  which  to  judge  the  efficiency  of  the 
supervisor's  work  in  securing  good  teaching. 

Types  of  evidence  that  indicate  the  efficiency  of  the  spe- 
cial supervisor's  work.  These  have  for  the  most  part  been 
set  forth  in  determining  the  status  of  the  goals  that  are  to  be 
attained.  Another  type  of  evidence,  however,  that  should 
be  considered  is  the  scholastic  attainments  of  the  pupils  to 
whom  the  special  subject  is  taught.  If  there  are  scholastic 
records  of  the  standing  of  the  pupils  for  the  year  or  two  just 
preceding,  these  should  be  plotted  showing  the  average 
monthly  standing  by  grades.  Then  the  monthly  averages 
for  the  current  year  can  be  compared  with  these  to  show  the 
relative  efficiency  of  the  work  done  under  the  special  super- 
visor. 


248  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

Teacher's  judgment  on  course  of  study.  Another  type  of 
evidence  that  should  be  considered  in  reference  to  the  course 
of  study  is  that  of  the  judgment  of  the  teachers  as  to  the 
quantity  and  fitness  of  the  material  outlined  by  the  super- 
visor and  assigned  to  the  teachers  to  be  taught.  This  evi- 
dence can  readily  be  secured  by  a  simple  questionnaire  form 
that  can  be  filled  out  easily  and  accurately  by  the  teachers, 
and  which  can  be  easily  checked  up  by  the  administrative 
officer.  The  following  form  might  be  used  very  effectively: 

INFORMATION  CONCERNING  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 

In ,  for  the  year 

Teacher Grade Building 

1.  Was  the  amount  of  subject-matter  assigned  to  be  taught  too 
great  or  too  small  for  the  length  of  the  recitation  periods? 

2.  If  the  amount  was  too  great,  how  much  extra  time  did  it  take 
or  would  it  have  taken  to  cover  the  ground? 

3.  If  the  amount  was  too  small,  how  much  more  could  have  been 
done  in  the  allotted  time? 

4.  Was  the  subject-matter  assigned  to  be  taught  too  difficult  or 
too  easy  for  the  pupils  in  your  grade? 

5.  State  the  chief  grounds  or  evidences  upon  which  the  answers 
to  the  above  questions  are  based. 

The  chief  reason  for  securing  such  data  from  the  teachers 
is  that  special  supervisors  are  often  well  trained  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  but  have  had  little  or  no  experi- 
ence in  teaching  the  subject  to  the  various  grades  of  pupils. 
The  regular  teachers  very  often  know  the  limitations  of  the 
pupils  much  more  accurately  than  does  the  supervisor,  and 
with  even  a  limited  knowledge  of  the  special  subject,  they 
may  be  better  judges  of  the  quantity  of  material  that  can 
well  be  covered  and  also  better  judges  as  to  the  relative 
difficulty  of  the  material  for  their  respective  grades.  At 
any  rate,  their  judgments  are  worth  checking  against  the 
course  of  study  that  is  proposed  and  many  times  insisted 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    249 

upon  by  the  supervisor  regardless  of  the  protests  of  experi- 
enced teachers. 

Sources  from  which  valid  evidence  should  be  secured  for 
measuring  the  efficiency  of  the  special  supervisor's  work. 
The  sources  have  already  been  indicated  with  the  exception 
of  those  that  will  be  given  under  the  next  item  in  the  pro- 
gram, namely,  the  supervisor's  record  of  the  quantity  of 
supervisory  activities  carried  on,  and  the  qualitative  study 
made  of  these  performances  by  the  administrative  officer. 
Summed  up  briefly,  the  sources  from  which  objective  evi- 
dence of  supervisory  efficiency  may  be  secured  are :  teachers' 
records  of  scholastic  attainments  of  pupils;  administrative 
records  of  success  grades  or  ranking  marks  of  teachers; 
printed  form  of  course  of  study  actually  taught;  judgments 
of  the  teachers  on  course  of  study;  supervisor's  record  of 
quantity  of  supervisory  performances;  and  administrative 
records  of  the  quality  of  the  supervisory  activities. 

Consideration  of  the  supervisory  performances  in  them- 
selves as  a  measure  of  their  efficiency.  The  first  considera- 
tion should  be  the  mathematical  measure  of  the  actual  time 
spent  in  carrying  on  the  various  activities.  The  chief  items 
that  should  be  included  are  as  follows : 

a.  Number  of  hours  spent  in  group  conferences  with  teachers  for 
the  purpose  of  teaching  the  subject-matter  of  the  course  and 
for  the  purpose  of  instructing  them  in  the  method,  devices, 
and  technique  of  teaching  the  course  to  the  pupils. 

9.  Number  of  hours  per  week  spent  in  individual  conferences 
with  teachers,  and  the  average  amount  of  time  per  week  given 
to  each  teacher  in  such  conferences. 

c.  Number  of  hours  per  day  spent  in  classroom  visitations,  and 
the  average  time  per  week  spent  with  each  teacher  in  such 
visitations. 

d.  Number  of  hours  per  week  spent  in  preparation  of  subject- 
matter  for  the  course  of  study. 

The  special  supervisor  can  easily  keep  an  accurate  record 


250  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

of  these  items  and  submit  a  graphic  presentation  of  them  to 
the  administrative  officer.  They  are  certainly  one  type  of 
objective  evidence  of  the  efficiency  with  which  the  special 
supervisory  work  is  being  carried  on. 

Quality  of  special  supervisory  activities.  The  second 
consideration  is  that  of  the  quality  of  the  special  supervisory 
activities.  The  quantity  of  such  activities  may  be  sufficient 
to  stand  for  a  high  degree  of  efficiency,  provided  the  quality 
of  the  performances  is  of  a  high  or  even  fair  standard.  The 
only  way  the  administrative  officer  can  determine  this  point 
with  any  assurance  is  by  actually  visiting  the  supervisor  at 
work  and  by  observing  keenly  the  things  that  the  supervisor 
does.  No  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  how  many  times  the 
administrator  needs  to  see  each  kind  of  supervisory  activity 
performed  in  order  to  satisfy  his  mind  as  to  the  degree  to 
which  the  supervisor  is  using  sound  method,  employing  good 
devices,  and  practicing  proper  technique  in  the  performance 
of  the  various  supervisory  duties.  A  regular  blank  contain- 
ing these  items  or  such  items  as  the  administrator  desires  to 
check  will  enable  this  study  of  the  quality  of  supervision  to 
be  carried  on  systematically  and  economically.  The  main 
point  is  that  the  administrator  should  base  his  estimates  on 
concrete  data  even  though  he  does  not  attempt  to  record 
such  data  in  any  detail  on  the  blank.  The  measurement 
cannot  be  objective  unless  it  gets  away  from  mere  subjective 
impressions  and  personal  reactions  that  may  be  unduly  in- 
fluenced by  accidental  conditions. 

Measuring  the  efficiency  of  supervisory  activities  carried 
on  by  the  supervisor  in  a  training  school.  This  type  of 
situation  calls  for  a  much  more  detailed  program  of  measure- 
ment in  order  to  demonstrate  objectively  the  worth-while- 
ness  of  the  detailed  attack  that  the  training-school  super- 
visor should  make  upon  the  problem  of  training  teachers. 
The  following  program  is  one  that  can  be  thoroughly  prac- 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    251 

ticed  and  is  one  that  will  contribute  vitally  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  science  of  supervision.  In  other  words,  it  is  a 
program  that  provides  for  the  measurement  of  a  genuinely 
professional  performance  of  the  supervisory  functions: 

A.  Goals  or  outcomes  to  be  attained  through  supervision. 

a.  The  development  of  teaching  skill  in  applying  the  prin- 
ciples of  method,  employing  good  devices,  and  practic- 
ing appropriate  technique  in  the  teaching  of  a  particular 
subject  or  subjects. 

6.  The  maintenance  of  a  high  scholastic  attainment  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils  taught  by  the  teachers  being  trained. 

c.  Organization  of  a  well-balanced  course  of  study. 

Other  goals  might  be  set  up  in  addition  to  these,  but  these 
three  call  for  a  thoroughgoing  program  of  measurement. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  first  goal  if  it  is  undertaken  in 
any  serious  fashion.  It  is  the  focal  point  of  the  supervisory 
functions  in  the  training-school  situation,  and  it  should  be 
attacked  in  a  thoroughly  analytical  and  scientific  manner. 

B.  Types  of  evidence  of  supervisory  efficiency  under  the  training- 
school  conditions. 

a.  Lesson  plans  of  teachers,  which  show  the  development 
of  ability  to  apply  the  principles  of  method  to  the  or- 
ganization of  subject-matter,  the  selection  of  good  de- 
vices for  its  presentation,  and  the  formulation  of  a  pro- 
gram of  technique  that  seems  suitable  to  the  particular 
situation. 

6.  Skill  in  actual  teaching  as  shown  by  the  last  two  or 
three  weeks  of  the  practice  teaching  of  each  student 
teacher. 

c.  Final  grades  given  teachers  on  their  practice  teaching. 

d.  Judgments  of  teachers  as  shown  by  a  questionnaire 
score  card  indicating  the  items  in  which  they  have  been 
materially  helped  by  supervision. 

e.  Scholastic  records  of  pupils  being  taught  by  the  student 
teachers  under  supervision. 

/.  Quantitative  record  of  the  supervisory  activities  carried 
on  by  the  training-school  supervisor.  This  should  in* 


252  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

elude  all  kinds  of  outlines  issued  to  teachers  and  the 
course-of-study  materials  formulated  by  the  supervisor. 
g.  Qualitative  study  of  the  supervisory  performances  as 
made  through  personal  contact  of  the  administrator 
with  the  supervisory  situation.     This  type  of  evidence 
should  be  given  in  detail  and  each  item  should  be  based 
on  concrete  data.    Especial  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  technique  of  the  supervisor  in  visiting  teachers  at 
work,  in  making  constructive  criticisms,  etc. 
C.  Sources  from  which  the  types  of  evidence  should  be  secured. 
These  have  already  been  indicated  in  stating  the  types  them- 
selves.   Briefly  restated,  however,  they  are  student  teachers, 
supervisor,  school  records  of  pupils'  grades,  records  of  teach- 
ers' practice  teaching  grades,  and  the  administrator  or  direc- 
tor of  the  school.    The  matter  of  securing  the  objective  data 
from  all  these  sources  should  be  carefully  worked  out  so  that 
the  data  will  be  compiled  systematically  and  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  afford  a  reliable  basis  for  determining  the  degree 
of  efficiency  with  which  the  supervisor  has  performed  his  re- 
spective duties.    The  use  of  such  devices  as  are  suggested  be- 
low will  facilitate  the  accumulation  of  the  necessary  data. 

Devices  for  securing  objective  data.  A  detailed  daily- 
lesson-plan  form,  such  as  has  been  presented  in  a  previous 
discussion  in  this  book,  and  a  weekly-lesson-plan  form  simi- 
lar to  that  heretofore  described,  will  enable  the  director  to 
secure  very  definite  evidence  as  to  the  development  of  the 
teacher's  professional  knowledge  and  his  skill  in  applying 
this  knowledge  to  teaching  problems.  The  teacher  can 
readily  furnish  such  lesson  plans  as  are  desired  by  the  super- 
visor and  director  by  using  carbon  sheets,  so  that  no  extra 
work  need  be  involved  in  meeting  this  particular  part  of  the 
administrative  program. 

The  data  on  skill  in  actual  teaching  can  be  secured  only 
through  visiting  the  teachers  at  work  a  sufficient  number  of 
times  to  accumulate  an  adequate  body  of  facts  upon  which 
to  base  a  valid  judgment.  The  director  may  secure  such 
data  economically  by  using  a  detailed  blank  which  contains 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    £53 

the  items  suggested  in  the  chapter  on  the  measuring  of  teach- 
ing efficiency.  If  he  so  desires,  he  may  use  fewer  items,  or 
he  may  extend  the  number  of  points  to  suit  his  particular 
point  of  view  and  present  purposes.  The  main  point  is  that 
some  definite  form  of  observation  notes  should  be  taken  and 
the  estimate  of  the  teachers'  efficiency  based  upon  them. 

The  final  grades  of  the  teachers  and  the  standing  of  the 
pupils  can  be  secured  from  the  usual  school  records  that  are 
kept  for  this  purpose.  These  may  be  charted  for  conven- 
ience in  making  comparisons  from  term  to  term,  and  practi- 
cally all  of  this  tabular  work  can  be  done  by  clerical  help. 
The  graphic  representation  of  such  data  is  so  common  that 
no  special  form  need  be  suggested  here.  The  simpler  the 
form  the  better  as  long  as  it  shows  up  the  essential  items. 

The  questionnaire  for  securing  the  judgments  of  teachers 
needs  to  be  prepared  with  care  and  it  should  contain  the  main 
items  of  teacher  training  that  are  supposed  to  be  contrib- 
uted to  through  the  work  of  the  supervisor.  A  score-card 
form  is  very  convenient  and  can  be  easily  varied  to  include 
as  many  or  as  few  items  as  the  situation  seems  to  warrant. 
The  form  should  be  different  for  elementary-  and  secondary- 
training  schools  on  account  of  the  difference  in  the  number 
of  subjects  supervised  by  each  supervisor.  The  accom- 
panying form  (see  page  254)  is  suggestive  of  what  might  be 
used  to  advantage  in  an  elementary-training  school. 

Use  of  the  score  card.  The  student  teachers  should  be 
carefully  instructed  in  the  use  of  this  score  card.  A  score  of 
from  one  to  five  should  be  entered  in  each  square  of  the  en- 
tire card,  and  the  averages  entered  for  each  teacher-training 
item  and  for  each  subject.  The  director  can  accumulate 
these  cards  during  the  year  and  have  the  summation  aver- 
ages of  all  the  data  recorded  graphically  by  subjects  and  by 
teacher-training  items.  The  tabular  work  can  be  handled 
by  clerical  assistance  so  that  the  administrator  needs  only  to 


254 


TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 


TEACHER'S  RATING  OF  SUPERVISORY  AID  RENDERED  BY 
SUPERVISOR. .  .  .IN  MASTERING: 


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»  See  Chapters  IV,  VI. 

study  the  final  tabulations  to  determine  the  value  of  the 
evidence. 

The  score  card  that  would  be  adapted  to  rating  the  super- 
visors in  a  secondary-training  institution  would  be  much 
simpler  in  form.  It  might  well  contain  the  same  teacher- 
training  items  as  are  given  in  the  above  form,  but  these 
would  refer  to  only  one  or  possibly  two  subjects,  since  each 
student  teacher  usually  teaches  only  one  subject  in  his  prac- 
tice period. 

The  administrator  should  be  careful  in  evaluating  these 
scores  so  as  not  to  give  them  too  great  weight  in  judging  the 
efficiency  of  the  work  of  a  supervisor.  This  source  of  evi- 
dence, however,  should  receive  a  fair  amount  of  considera- 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    255 

tion.  The  person  who  takes  the  treatment  is  in  a  position 
to  pass  judgment  on  the  results  from  an  angle  to  which 
no  other  person  has  access.  The  practice  of  going  to  the 
recipients  of  education  courses  to  get  testimony  as  to  their 
practical  value  is  becoming  more  and  more  common  to-day 
in  the  educational  world.  The  results  of  such  an  inquiry  at 
least  serves  as  a  balancing  check  against  the  evidences  pre- 
sented from  other  sources  on  the  efficiency  of  the  supervisory 
performances. 

Supplementing  the  questionnaire.  Another  type  of  evi- 
dence that  the  teacher  can  furnish  in  the  program  for  meas- 
uring the  worth  of  supervision  is  that  of  giving  a  descriptive 
account  of  ways  in  which  the  supervisor  has  contributed  to 
his  training.  The  teacher,  knowing  his  difficulties  in  at  least 
a  general  way,  and  realizing  when  and  how  he  has  been  actu- 
ally helped,  can  very  readily  render  an  accurate  descriptive 
account  of  the  help  given.  The  teacher  must  be  consistent 
in  recording  such  descriptive  data  in  order  to  be  of  real  serv- 
ice in  measuring  the  efficiency  of  the  supervisory  activities. 

Examples  of  supervisory  helpfulness.  The  teacher  may 
be  handicapped  in  his  work  on  account  of  lack  of  certain 
lines  of  general  training,  which  he  might  readily  overcome 
by  individual  study  under  wise  direction.  If  the  supervisor 
discovers  this  source  of  the  teacher's  difficulty,  points  out 
the  remedy,  and  directs  the  teacher  in  removing  the  defect, 
the  teacher  knows  quite  definitely  and  in  what  degree  the 
supervisor  has  rendered  valuable  service  to  him.  A  brief, 
concise  statement  of  the  amount  of  time  spent  by  the  super- 
visor, and  the  kinds  of  suggestions,  discussions,  and  helpful 
acts  performed  in  rendering  the  service,  should  be  set  down 
in  the  proper  place  in  the  record.  Every  time  this  sort  of 
assistance  is  given  the  teacher  an  accurate  record  should  be 
made. 

Another  general  handicap  that  the  teacher  very  fre- 


256  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

quently  works  under  is  that  of  having  a  very  vague  concep- 
tion of  the  aims  of  education  and  the  specific  purposes  for 
which  the  various  subjects  are  taught.  This  defect  usually 
involves  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  psychological  and  physi- 
ological natures  of  the  pupils  in  the  particular  type  of  school 
in  which  the  teacher  is  working.  This  handicap  may  be 
largely  overcome  in  many  cases  through  the  work  of  the  su- 
pervisor. He  may  put  literature  into  the  teacher's  hands, 
and  through  discussions  and  suggestions  greatly  aid  the 
teacher  in  interpreting  the  points  of  view  and  principles  thus 
presented.  The  result  will  be  a  greatly  changed  teacher, 
and  the  teacher  can  be  fully  aware  of  the  advantage  that 
has  come  to  him  through  this  change.  Therefore  he  should 
keep  a  faithful  record  of  the  important  acts  performed  by 
the  supervisor  in  this  connection. 

The  problems  of  general  management  of  the  classroom 
and  the  problems  of  discipline  are  some  of  the  hardest  diffi- 
culties for  a  teacher,  as  a  rule,  to  overcome.  These  prob- 
lems are  very  definite  and  concrete.  They  arise  in  such  a 
way  that  the  teacher  realizes  quite  fully  his  lack  of  ability 
to  cope  with  the  situation.  Therefore  he  realizes  just  what 
advice  and  suggestions  from  the  supervisor  have  enabled 
him  to  deal  with  his  problems  more  successfully  than  he 
could  possibly  have  done  on  his  own  responsibility.  The 
concrete  cases  should  be  recorded  in  complete  enough  form 
to  show  the  essential  ways  in  which  the  direction  of  the  su- 
pervisor was  highly  valuable.  The  essential  help  may  have 
been  the  clarifying  of  the  teacher's  understanding  of  the 
principles  underlying  the  particular  piece  of  pupil  conduct. 
It  may  have  been  the  suggesting  of  a  device  or  some  point  of 
technique  in  dealing  with  the  case.  Whatever  it  may  have 
been,  the  essential  point  or  points  can  always  be  set  down  in 
definite  form. 

Starting  the  teacher  along  right  lines.    The  one  aspect 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    257 

of  the  teacher's  work  in  which  he  meets  many  difficulties 
and  in  which  he  looks  most  of  all  to  the  supervisor  for  mate- 
rial assistance  is  that  of  teaching  subject-matter  in  particular 
subjects.  The  teacher  may  not  always  realize  that  the  point 
of  difficulty  is  one  primarily  of  method,  device,  or  technique, 
but  he  should  realize  quite  fully  the  difference  that  the  work 
of  the  supervisor  has  made  in  his  ability  to  meet  the  teach- 
ing problems  successfully.  If  the  supervisor  is  successful  in 
rendering  constructive  service,  the  teacher  will  know  that  it 
was  a  clearing-up  of  a  point  in  method,  or  the  selection  of 
better  devices,  or  the  forming  of  correct  technique  that  en- 
abled him  to  improve  in  his  teaching.  The  teacher  may 
have  some  very  bad  forms  of  technique  that  need  to  be 
broken  up  and  replaced  by  good  technique.  He  may  fully 
realize  that  this  is  the  case,  and  yet  be  unable  to  accomplish 
the  task  alone.  When  this  is  true  he  knows  thoroughly  just 
what  the  supervisor  contributes  to  his  success  in  mastering 
the  situation.  All  of  these  points  come  out  in  connection 
with  concrete  teaching  situations.  Therefore  the  teacher 
can  set  down  accurate  data,  in  brief  form,  that  show  the 
value  of  the  supervisor's  work. 

The  teacher  often  lacks  initiative  and  independence.  He 
needs  to  have  opportunities  thrust  upon  him  for  acquiring 
this  much-desired  power.  If  the  supervisor  succeeds  in  giv- 
ing the  teacher  such  opportunities,  and  by  wise  direction  en- 
ables him  to  develop  initiative,  the  teacher  knows  just  what 
has  taken  place  so  far  as  the  essential  features  of  each  case 
are  concerned.  The  specific  situations  should  be  recorded 
with  enough  details  to  objectify  the  service  that  the  super- 
visor has  rendered  to  the  teacher  in  each  case. 

Value  of  objective  records.  The  teacher  not  only  knows 
when  he  has  received  material  help  in  respect  to  the  various 
points  that  have  been  set  forth  above,  but  he  also  knows 
when  he  has  been  hindered  rather  than  helped.  Therefore, 


258  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

in  connection  with  each  of  these  different  types  of  difficul- 
ties, he  should  make  an  accurate  descriptive  record  of  the 
negative  effect  of  the  supervisor's  work  whenever  there  is 
just  cause  for  so  doing.  The  teacher  may  not  understand 
just  what  the  reason  is  for  the  negative  effect,  but  if  he  sets 
down  a  reliable  account  of  the  supervisor's  performance  and 
the  apparent  results  and  submits  these  data  to  the  adminis- 
trator, that  officer  may  be  able  to  analyze  the  situation  thor- 
oughly enough  to  locate  the  defect.  The  trouble  may  be  a 
failure  to  apply  some  principle  of  method  in  supervision,  a 
poor  selection  of  devices,  or  a  matter  of  faulty  technique. 
The  difficulty  may  be  just  a  matter  of  personality  or  an  un- 
fortunate temporary  attitude  and  bearing  on  the  part  of  the 
supervisor.  Whatever  the  defect  may  be,  the  teacher  will 
have  discharged  his  responsibility  when  he  has  made  an  ac- 
curate, honest  record  of  what  actually  took  place  and  has 
placed  the  data  at  the  disposal  of  the  administrator. 

The  keeping  of  such  a  record  as  has  been  suggested  in  this 
discussion  may  seem  to  be  too  detailed  and  laborious  to  be 
practical.  The  actual  amount  of  time  and  labor  involved 
in  doing  the  work  is  not  great,  provided  a  good  form  is  used 
to  systematize  the  data  and  reduce  the  amount  of  writing  to 
the  minimum,  and  provided  the  teacher  forms  the  habit  of 
checking  up  on  the  items  periodically  and  making  whatever 
records  are  essential  to  the  success  of  the  scheme.  One 
thing  is  certain,  and  that  is  that  the  only  way  to  make  relia- 
ble scientific  measurements  of  the  supervisor's  efficiency  is 
to  accumulate  worth-while  objective  data  of  the  sorts  that 
have  been  set  forth,  and  the  only  way  to  secure  such  an  ac- 
cumulation of  facts  is  to  invent  good  devices  and  practice 
proper  technique.  No  measurement  should  be  attempted 
at  all  if  it  has  to  be  based  on  mere  subjective  impressions  and 
superficial  evidence.  There  would  be  nothing  wrong,  to  be 
sure,  in  asking  a  teacher  for  his  impression  of  the  value  of 


259 

the  supervisor's  work,  but  such  an  impression  should  not  be 
taken  as  a  substitute  for  objective  evidence.  If  this  is  the 
only  kind  of  data  at  hand  upon  which  to  make  an  estimate 
of  the  supervisor's  work,  then  let  this  fact  be  stated  frankly 
and  let  no  pretense  be  made  of  giving  the  supervisor  a  defi- 
nite rating  upon  such  a  basis. 

Consideration  of  the  supervisory  performances  in  them- 
selves as  a  measure  of  the  efficiency  of  supervision.  The 
supervisor  should  be  ready  and  willing  to  supply  data  on  his 
own  activities  that  can  be  used  in  checking  up  the  other  data 
secured  by  the  administrator.  Moreover,  he  should  be  in- 
terested in  accumulating  as  much  objective  data  as  possible 
on  his  performances,  in  order  that  he  may  study  them  ac* 
curately  and  in  perspective.  The  supervisor  who  can  re- 
view his  own  actual  doings  in  concrete  form  at  the  end  of  a 
year,  half-year,  or  any  period  whatever,  is  in  a  much  better 
position  to  discover  his  defects  and  his  strong  points  than  he 
can  possibly  be  if  he  depends  upon  memory  and  general  im- 
pressions. The  actual  amount  of  time  and  labor  that  would 
be  consumed  in  the  accumulation  of  essential  data  will  not 
be  great  when  the  supervisor  has  once  formed  the  habit  of 
doing  it  systematically.  The  work  of  recording  some  of  the 
forms  of  data,  as  will  be  shown,  can  be  largely  done  by 
stenographic  and  clerical  help.  And,  finally,  the  supervisor 
ought,  more  than  any  other  person  connected  with  his  work, 
to  be  interested  in  having  his  efficiency  measured  by  an 
abundance  of  objective  data  rather  than  by  brief  inspection 
and  subjective  impressions. 

One  of  the  important  forms  of  data  that  the  supervisor 
should  furnish  the  administrator  is  that  of  typewritten  or 
mimeographed  copies  of  all  the  kinds  of  materials  that  he 
puts  into  the  hands  of  the  teachers  for  their  guidance  and 
direction.  These  materials  should  include  outlines  of  sub- 
ject-matter, suggestive  forms  for  lesson  plans,  outlines  on 


260  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

method,  devices,  and  technique  especially  adapted  to  partic- 
ular subjects,  suggestions  on  testing  and  examining  pupils 
in  particular  subjects,  general  instructions  on  management 
and  discipline,  instructions  and  suggestions  on  supervised 
study,  forms  to  be  used  by  teachers  in  taking  observation 
notes,  and  general  instructions  to  teachers  on  handling 
make-up  work.  There  may  be  other  printed  materials  that 
the  supervisor  has  worked  out  for  special  purposes  and 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  teachers.  Whatever  they  may 
be,  copies  of  them  should  be  furnished  to  the  administrator. 

Plans  for  supervisory  work.  A  second  very  vital  form  of 
data  that  the  supervisor  should  submit  to  the  administrator 
is  that  of  definite  plans  of  supervision.  These  plans  should 
show  how  frequently  the  supervisor  expects  to  visit  the  work 
of  each  teacher,  when  these  visits  are  to  occur,  and  how 
much  time  will  be  spent  on  each  visit.  This  should,  of 
course,  be  flexible,  but  a  definite  program  of  distribution  of 
time  will  be  helpful  to  the  supervisor  and  be  valuable  to  the 
administrator.  The  supervisor  should  plan  definite  prob- 
lems in  method,  device,  technique,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be, 
upon  which  he  expects  to  be  working  in  the  direction  of  each 
teacher's  work  day  after  day  and  week  after  week.  These 
plans  can  very  well  be  made  for  a  week  at  a  time  without 
unduly  burdening  the  supervisor,  and  without  reducing 
them  to  a  mere  formal  task.  These  plans  should  be  flexible, 
but  the  supervisor  will  do  much  more  effective  work  with 
each  teacher  if  he  has  definite  points  in  mind  upon  which  to 
work  daily  until  something  definite  has  been  accomplished. 
The  working-out  of  good  forms  to  be  used  in  making  these 
various  plans  will  save  much  time  and  energy  and  will  be  an 
indication  of  the  supervisor's  efficiency. 

Notes  on  visitation.  A  third  type  of  data  is  that  of  defi- 
nite notes,  taken  during  visits  to  the  teacher  at  work,  and 
written  suggestions  given  to  teachers  concerning  the  specific 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    261 

problems  upon  which  the  supervisor  is  working  at  any  par- 
ticular time.  A  good  form  may  be  used  in  taking  detailed 
notes  that  will  reduce  the  labor  involved  to  a  minimum. 
Carbon  sheets  can  be  used,  and  thus  readily  supply  as  many 
extra  copies  from  one  writing  as  may  be  desired.  These 
notes  will  not  only  show  just  what  the  supervisor  is  under- 
taking to  do,  but  they  will  enable  both  administrator  and 
supervisor  to  discover  the  most  common  defects  of  teachers 
in  particular  subjects.  They  will  also  show  quite  definitely 
the  range  of  differences  in  the  time  taken  by  individual 
teachers  to  overcome  this  or  that  particular  defect,  or  to 
make  some  specific  adjustment  to  a  problem. 

Reports  of  conferences.  A  final  form  of  data  should  be 
that  of  definite  statements  and  information  concerning  the 
conducting  of  conferences  with  teachers.  This  should  in- 
clude the  time  spent  in  individual  and  group  conferences, 
and  should  give  in  brief,  concise  form  the  essential  points 
concerning  the  matters  discussed,  with  a  statement  as  to  the 
apparent  results.  A  well-worked-out  blank  form  for  this 
purpose  will  reduce  greatly  the  time  and  energy  consumed 
in  keeping  an  accurate  record.  The  accumulation  of  such 
data  will  be  as  helpful  or  even  more  so  to  the  supervisor  than 
it  will  be  to  the  administrator.  It  will  enable  him  to  study 
his  own  performances  in  conducting  such  conferences,  and 
be  the  means  of  improving  method,  devices,  and  technique 
of  doing  such  work.  The  more  the  supervisor,  as  well  as  the 
administrator,  gets  away  from  mere  memory  and  subjective 
impressions,  the  more  effective  he  will  become.  The  at- 
tempt to  secure  objective  data  will  mean  definiteness  in 
everything  connected  with  his  work,  and  definiteness  all 
round  will  go  far  toward  eliminating  waste  and  bringing 
consistent  improvement  in  the  supervisory  performances. 

Qualitative  study  of  supervisory  performances.  The 
second  phase  of  considering  the  supervisory  performances  in 


262  TECHNIQUE  OF  SUPERVISION 

themselves  as  a  measure  of  their  efficiency  is  that  of  de- 
termining the  quality  of  these  actual  performances.  This 
study  cannot  be  made  on  any  other  basis  than  that  of  actual 
personal  contact  with  the  supervisor's  work.  The  adminis- 
trator must  see  the  supervisor  in  the  schoolroom,  directing 
the  teacher,  in  conferences  with  teachers,  teaching  demon- 
stration lessons,  conducting  observation  groups,  testing  the 
work  of  the  pupils,  and  measuring  the  work  of  the  teachers 
in  order  to  have  any  adequate  conception  of  the  supervisor's 
skill.  Moreover,  these  visits  to  the  supervisor's  work  must 
be  more  than  inspectorial  glimpses.  They  must  be  frequent 
enough  and  extended  enough  to  enable  the  administrator  to 
analyze  thoroughly  the  extent  to  which  the  supervisor  has 
mastered  the  principles  of  method  in  supervision,  has  exer- 
cised good  judgment  in  selecting  and  adapting  devices,  and 
has  acquired  effective  technique  in  performing  all  phases  of 
the  supervising  activities.  If  the  administrator  does  not 
have  the  time  or  opportunity  to  make  any  such  thorough- 
going study  as  has  been  suggested,  then  he  is  not  in  a  posi- 
tion to  pass  judgment  upon  the  worth  of  the  supervision 
from  the  standpoint  of  what  the  supervisor  has  actually  done 
in  the  way  of  performance.  If  this  is  the  case,  the  justness 
with  which  the  work  of  the  supervisor  is  measured  will  de- 
pend upon  how  carefully  the  results  as  set  forth  above  have 
been  checked  up. 

Need  for  definite  plans  and  systematic  work.  The  ad- 
ministrator who  undertakes  in  a  serious  way  to  make  a 
thorough  study  of  the  work  of  his  supervisors  should  have  a 
definite  plan  in  mind  and  carry  it  out  systematically.  He 
must  take  accurate  notes  on  his  observations  when  visiting 
the  work,  and  he  must  discriminate  sharply  between  princi- 
ples of  method,  devices,  and  technique  of  supervision.  He 
should  not  rely  too  much  upon  the  mere  appearance  of 
things,  but  should  have  conferences  with  the  supervisors  be- 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    263 

fore  and  after  his  visits  in  order  to  get  into  their  thinking  on 
points  of  method,  devices,  and  technique.  He  will  in  this 
way  learn  whether  or  not  the  success  of  the  supervisors  at 
any  time  was  accidental,  and  whether  seeming  failure  was 
merely  a  temporary  matter  that  will  in  all  probability  come 
out  right  later.  He  should  study  the  plans  that  his  super- 
visors make  for  their  own  guidance,  and  note  the  extent  to 
which  these  plans  are  realized  in  their  work.  Moreover,  he 
should  not  only  note  deficiencies,  but  should  account  for 
them  in  terms  of  failure  to  apply  the  principles  of  method, 
lack  of  good  judgment  in  selecting  and  adapting  devices,  or 
deficiency  in  skill  of  technique. 

The  work  of  the  administrator  in  observing  supervisory 
activities  will  be  greatly  facilitated  by  the  use  of  a  regular 
blank  which  includes  all  the  essential  items  that  should  be 
studied  through  such  observations.  Concrete  data  should 
be  accumulated  under  each  item  and  a  final  rating  of  effi- 
ciency in  each  item  made  from  these  objective  data.  The 
general  headings  on  such  a  form  should  be:  Method,  De- 
vices, and  Technique.  There  should  be  a  space  for  miscel- 
laneous notes  and  comments.  The  exact  form  that  may 
be  used  is  immaterial.  The  important  point  is  that  when 
one  systematically  accumulates  data  of  this  sort,  he  becomes 
much  more  definite  and  certain  in  his  procedure.  This  very 
habit  of  getting  down  to  definite,  detailed  data  will  insure  a 
high  degree  of  accuracy  in  estimating  the  real  worth  of  su- 
pervision. 

Chapter  summary.  The  work  of  supervision  must  justify 
its  existence  by  establishing  adequate  objective  evidences  of 
its  efficiency.  These  objective  evidences  may  be  secured 
through  first  setting  up  a  body  of  guiding  principles,  and 
then,  by  formulating  a  program  that  will  enable  the  admin- 
istrator or  supervisor,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  apply  the  prin- 
ciples to  the  measurement  of  any  particular  type  of  super- 


264  TECHNIQUE  OP  SUPERVISION 

visory  situation.  The  ultimate  interpretation  of  principles 
and  the  formulation  of  the  measurement  program  must  rest 
with  the  individual  administrator.  Suggestive  programs, 
however,  based  upon  definite  supervisory  situations  may  be 
helpful;  hence  they  are  worth  studying. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  goals  or  outcomes  that  would  be  suitable  for  a  superin- 
tendent, in  a  city  of  5000,  to  undertake  to  realize  through  his  own 
supervisory  activities. 

2.  Describe  the  status  of  a  particular  course  of  study,  in  either  an  ele- 
mentary- or  secondary-school  subject,  that  needs  revision. 

3.  Select  some  subject  that  is  usually  introduced  into  the  schools  under  a 
special  supervisor  and  make  a  list  of  appropriate  goals  that  may  be 
attained  by  efficient  supervision. 

4.  Select  two  appropriate  goals  to  be  realized  through  the  supervisory 
activities  of  a  supervising  principal,  and  designate  the  types  of  objec- 
tive data  that  would  well  establish  the  efficiency  of  the  supervision. 

5.  Give  a  brief  descriptive  account  of  three  or  more  ways  in  which  you 
have  been  helped  by  a  supervisor. 

6.  Give  a  brief  descriptive  account  of  two  or  more  instances  in  which  you 
have  been  handicapped  by  poor  or  insufficient  supervision. 

7.  Give  three  examples  of  cases  in  which  special  supervisors  have  de- 
manded too  much  of  the  teachers  under  their  supervision. 

8.  Make  a  blank  form  that  the  administrator  could  use  to  advantage  in 
securing  reliable  data  on  his  observations  of  the  actual  performances 
of  supervision. 

9.  Make  a  graphic  record  of  the  quantity  of  supervisory  duties  per- 
formed by  a  particular  supervisor  whose  work  you  have  known. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES  FOR  SECTION  C 

Boyce,  Arthur  C.    Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Society  for  the  Study  of  Edu- 
cation.   Part  n,  "Methods  for  Measuring  Teachers'  Efficiency." 
Good  presentation  of  data,  and  excellent  analysis  of  practical  standards. 

Elliott,  E.  C.  "A  Tentative  Scale  for  the  Measuring  of  Teaching  Effi- 
ciency"; in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Twelfth  Yearbook,  part  I,  p.  68. 
Gives  1910  edition  of  the  scale.  Cubberley,  E.  P.  State  and  County 
Educational  Reorganization,  Appendix,  gives  1914  edition  of  the  Elliott 
Scale,  and  also  two  State  of  Indiana  scales. 
Good  standard  to  compare  with  Boyce's  scale. 


ESTIMATING  THE  WORTH  OF  SUPERVISION    265 

Hall,  J.  W.  Twelfth  Yearbook  of  the  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education. 
Part  i,  Appendix,  p.  97,  "Supervision  of  Beginning  Teachers  in  Cincin- 
nati." 

Sets  of  notes,  taken  by  supervisors  during  visits  to  teachers,  given  in  full. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.,  DeVoss,  James  C.,  and  Kelly,  F.  J.  Educational  Testa 
and  Measurements. 

Comprehensive  presentation  and  discussion  of  standard  tests,  and  interpretation 
of  experimental  data. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  Seventeenth  Yearbook  of  the  Society  for  the  Study  of  Edu- 
cation. Chapter  m,  "Existing  Tests  and  Standards." 

Gives  all  tests  for  elementary  and  high  schools  up  to  1918. 

Morehouse,  Frances.  Practice  Teaching  in  the  School  of  Education,  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  School  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  7. 

Helpful  discussions  on  conferences  with  teachers,  and  criticism  of  teachers'  work. 
Rugg,  Harold  Ordway.     Teachers'  Marks  and  Marking  Systems. 

Excellent  presentation  of  both  fields. 

Seashore,  Carl  E.    Eighteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Society  for  the  Study  of  Educa- 
tion.   Chapter  vi,  "The  R61e  of  a  Consulting  Supervisor  in  Music." 
Helpful  suggestion*  on  technique. 


INDEX 


Administrator,  should  be  trained  in 
supervision,  8,  9;  the  supervisory 
job  of,  30,  31 ;  must  plan  for  meas- 
urement of  advisory  efficiency, 
238;  must  see  the  supervisor  at 
work,  261,  262;  must  have  definite 
plan,  262,  263. 

Adolescence,  the  beginning  stage  of, 
48,  49;  the  second  stage  of,  49; 
the  third  stage  of,  49,  50;  the  su- 
preme period  of  habit  formation, 
60;  religious  tendency  of,  67,  68. 

Adolescents,  physiological  traits  of, 
54;  psychological  traits  of,  54,  55; 
social  status  and  outlook  of,  56; 
effects  of  combined  physical  con- 
ditions on  development  of,  57,  58; 
embarrassments  of,  58,  59;  effect 
upon,  of  development  of  sex  or- 
gans, 59 ;  actions  of,  usually  due  to 
suggestion,  not  to  premeditation, 
65,  66.  See  Pupils. 

Algebra,  scope  of  subject-matter  of 
unit  of,  1 19. 

Analysis,  76. 

Anticipatory  teaching,  83,  84;  the 
value  of,  84,  85. 

Arithmetic,  scope  of  subject-matter 
of  unit  of,  119;  elementary,  out- 
line of  a  demonstration  lesson  in, 
140,  141;  meetings  to  discuss  the 
teaching  of,  242,  243. 

Assignments,  to  individual  pupils, 
134;  observation,  143-51;  pur- 
pose and  use  of  observation,  152, 
153;  of  lessons,  should  be  clear 
and  definite,  182;  recitations 
should  keep  up  with,  182,  183. 

Assistant  superintendent,  must 
sometimes  supervise,  30;  measur- 
ing the  supervisory  work  of,  245, 
246. 

Building  principal,  must  sometimes 


supervise,   30;  measuring  super- 
visory work  of,  245,  246. 
Bulletin  board,  108,  109. 

Capitalization,  132. 

Checking  up  work  of  pupils,  211. 

Childhood,  dominant  physiological 
characteristics  of,  41;  dominant 
psychological  characteristics  of, 
41-43. 

Children,  social  status  of,  43. 

Circulatory  system  of  adolescents, 
57. 

Class,  amount  of  time  to  be  devoted 
to  study  outside  of,  123,  124. 

Class  periods,  length  and  number  of, 
123. 

Classroom,  the  supervisor's  manner 
of  entering,  201,  202;  the  super- 
visor's position  in,  202,  203;  the 
supervisor's  manner  of  leaving, 
203,  204;  management  of,  222; 
visitations  of,  by  superintendent, 
244. 

Comma,  use  of  the,  132. 

Conferences,  individual  study,  185; 
group  and  individual,  186,  209; 
points  characteristic  of,  210,  211; 
of  superintendent  with  teachers, 
243;  reports  of,  261. 

Conservation  of  materials  in  devices, 
102.  103. 

Constructive  and  destructive  criti- 
cism, 195,  196. 

Cooperation  between  supervisor  and 
teachers,  to  be  aimed  at,  23,  24, 
35-37 ;  importance  of,  in  regard  to 
conduct  of  pupil,  66. 

Cooperative  teaching,  laying  tho 
basis  for,  23,  24;  particular  basis 
for,  in  the  elementary'  school,  38— 
44 ;  particular  Iwais  for,  in  tho  sec- 
ondary school,  45-74;  hearing 
upon,  of  agreement  concerning 


268 


INDEX 


characteristics  of  pupils,  56,  57; 
bearing  upon,  of  knowledge  of  un- 
certainty of  behavior  of  pupils, 
61-63;  general  basis  for,  in  either 
elementary  or  secondary  school, 
75-82;  selection  of  devices  in,  113. 

Cost  of  materials,  a  phase  of  econ- 
omy, 103. 

Courses,  selecting  and  organizing  the 
subject-matter  of,  the  duty  of  the 
supervisor,  24,  25;  detailed  state- 
ment with  regard  to  the  selection 
and  organization  of  the  subject- 
matter  of,  117-30;  should  be 
put  in  hands  of  teacher  in  com- 
plete form,  117;  facts  in  regard 
to  subject-matter  of,  which  should 
be  made  known  to  teacher,  117- 
19;  unit  of  credit  in,  119-30; 
the  scope  and  quantity  of,  119, 
120;  the  body  of  habits  that  should 
result  from  the  study  of,  120;  the 
prerequisites  to,  121;  other  courses 
in  the  same  subject  to  which  they 
lead,  121;  organization  of,  into 
shorter  or  longer  periods,  121- 
23;  length  and  number  of  class 
periods  necessary  for  complet- 
ing, 123;  the  class  of  pupils  for 
whom  they  are  pitched,  126;  the 
classes  of  pupils  to  whom  they  are 
open  for  full  or  fractional  credit, 
126,  127;  the  items  determining  a 
pupil's  credit  in,  127-29;  the  range 
of  marks  in  indicating  credit  in, 
129;  quantity  of  material  to  be 
covered  in  any  fraction  of,  129, 
130;  relative  emphasis  or  impor- 
tance of  the  divisions  of,  132.  See 
Sub  j  ect-matter. 

Credit,  the  amount  of,  to  be  given  to 
different  classes  of  pupils  in  the 
same  course,  126,  127;  the  items 
determining  a  pupil's,  127-29; 
the  range  of  marks  in  indicating, 
129.  See  Unit  of  credit. 

Critical  evaluation  of  teaching,  143, 
146,  147,  153-57. 

Criticism,  destructive  and  construc- 
tive, 195,  196. 

Curriculum,    of     the     elementary 


school,  40;  of  the  secondary  school, 
50,  51;  of  the  secondary  school,  to 
be  regarded  as  a  means  to  an  end, 
52,  53;  introduction  of  social  sub- 
jects, such  as  economics,  com- 
mercial geography,  into,  71;  the 
socializing  of  the  courses  of,  71. 
See  Courses,  Subject-matter. 
Curriculum-making.  See  Courses. 

Daily  lesson  plans.  See  Lesson  plans. 

Deduction  and  induction,  76,  77. 

Demonstration  and  experimentation, 
supervisor  should  teach  for  pur- 
poses of,  25,  26. 

Demonstration  teaching,  purpose  of, 
138;  aim  of  the  lesson  should  be 
seen  beforehand,  138,  139;  notea 
of  lesson  should  be  taken,  139; 
should  be  critical  discussion  after 
the  lesson,  139,  140;  examples  of, 
140-42;  emergency,  157-62. 

Demonstrations,  126. 

Destructive  and  constructive  criti- 
cism, 195,  196. 

Details  vs.  generalities,  in  training 
for  supervision,  18. 

Devices,  denned,  77,  97;  and  their 
use,  77,  78;  should  be  economical, 
97;  permanency  of,  important,  97, 
103;  examples,  instructions  to 
teachers,  98-102;  for  saving  teach- 
er's time,  102 ;  conservation  of  ma- 
terials in,  102,  103;  cost  of  mate- 
rials in,  103;  principle  of  econ- 
omy, in,  a  relative  matter,  103, 
104;  the  saving  of  time  the  im- 
portant matter  in,  104;  should  be 
effective,  104,  105;  criterions  of 
effectiveness  of,  104,  105;  should 
be  usable,  105,  106;  criterions  of 
usability,  105,  106;  should  not  be 
too  numerous,  106, 107 ;  should  not 
be  too  meager,  107;  should  bear 
a  logical  relation  to  the  end  they 
are  to  aid  in  accomplishing,  107, 
108;  should  be  a  means,  108,  109; 
should  be  classified,  109-11;  classi- 
fication of  general,  109,  110;  ma- 
terial, 109,  110;  intellectual,  109, 
110;  material  and  intellectual,  110, 


INDEX 


269 


111;  classification  of  special,  110, 
111;  the  selection  of,  113;  outline 
for  directed  teaching,  as  to,  164- 
67;  and  technique,  199;  intelli- 
gence and  resourcefulness  in  se- 
lecting and  adapting,  219,  220; 
for  securing  objective  data  as  to 
teacher's  efficiency,  252-54. 

Directed  observation  of  teaching, 
forms  of,  142;  purposes  of,  143; 
preliminary  observation,  143;  ob- 
Bervation  assignment,  143-51;  crit- 
ical observation,  143;  critical  eval- 
uation and  judgment-forming, 
146,  147;  purpose  and  use  of  ob- 
servation assignments,  152,  153; 
to  evaluate  teaching,  153-57. 

Directed  teaching,  a  step  in  learning 
to  teach  by  direct  teaching,  87,  88; 
what  it  involves,  163;  outline  for, 
164-70;  choice  of  specific  habits  of 
skill,  170;  definite  detailed  lesson 
plans,  171;  differences  between 
teachers,  172;  weekly  and  daily 
lesson-plans,  172-77;  lesson-plans 
do  not  lead  to  mechanical  work, 
177,  178;  lesson-plans  clarify 
thinking  for  the  beginner,  178; 
time  to  be  given  to  oral  and  writ- 
ten work  and  to  quizzes,  179;  ques- 
tions, 179;  preparation  of  lessons, 
180. 

Discipline,  in  outline  for  directed 
teaching,  168;  the  teacher's  ability 
in  the  matter  of,  222,  223;  a  phi- 
losophy of  school,  223-25;  a  mod- 
ern point  of  view  of,  224,  225. 

Discussions,  110. 

Double  periods,  184. 

Drill,  120,  132,  133,  183. 

Economy,  saving  of  time  for  the  su- 
pervisor, a  phase  of,  97;  saving  of 
time  for  the  teacher,  a  phase  of, 
102;  conservation  of  materials  a 
form  of,  102,  103;  cost  of  materials 
a  form  of,  103;  a  relative  matter, 
103,  104;  as  result  of  technique  of 
supervision,  196,  197. 

Education,  modern,  a  weakness  of, 
132,  133. 


Educational  situations,  113,  114. 

Efficiency,  training  conduces  to,  13, 
14;  supervision  to  develop,  194; 
supervisory,  see  Supervision;  of 
teacher,  see  Rating. 

Elementary  schools,  composition  of 
the  teaching  force  of,  3,  4;  particu- 
lar basis  for  cooperative  teaching 
in,  38-44;  the  purpose  of,  38;  the 
place  of,  38-40;  curriculum  of,  40; 
pupils  of,  41-43;  general  basis 
for  cooperative  teaching  in,  75- 
82. 

Embarrassments,  adolescent,  58,  59. 

Emergency  demonstration  teaching, 
157-62;  use  and  purpose  of,  157; 
examples  of,  158-60;  situations 
that  justify,  160,  161. 

English,  the  socializing  of,  72;  flu- 
ency and  correctness  in,  necessary 
for  teacher,  218. 

Evaluation,  critical,  of  teaching,  143, 
146,  147,  153-57;  observation 
outline,  154. 

Examinations,  222. 

Experiences,  mental  maturing 
through,  61-63. 

Experimentation  and  demonstra- 
tion, supervisor  should  teach  for 
purposes  of,  25,  26,  138. 

Experiments,  to  be  performed  by  the 
pupil,  125;  to  be  performed  by  the 
teacher,  125,  126. 

Finding  out  things  for  and  by  one's 
self,  90,  91. 

Formal  stage,  in  all  training,  12,  13; 
meaning  of,  14,  15. 

Formalism,  definition  of,  10. 

Formality  of  technique,  the,  9-11; 
training  school  and  public  school 
as  regards,  14,  15;  eliminated  by 
mastery,  16. 

Forms,  for  lesson  plans,  108,  109, 
173-76;  concerning  educational 
situation,  115;  for  observation 
assignment,  146,  148,  150;  for 
supervisor's  notes  of  teachers' 
classroom  work,  206-09;  for  in- 
formation concerning  course  of 
study  of  teacher,  248. 


270 


INDEX 


Generalities  vs.  details,  in  training 
for  supervision,  18. 

Geometry,  plane,  outline  of  a  dem- 
onstration   lesson    in,    141,    142 
example  of  emergency  demonstra- 
tion teaching  in,  158,  159. 

Goals,  the  habit  of  having  worth- 
while, 177;  superintendent  should 
have  definite,  240,  241;  set  up  for 
the  special  supervisor  to  attain, 
246,  247;  of  supervision,  251. 

Grades  and  marks,  assigning  of,  211, 
212. 

Grading  and  promoting,  value  of 
tests  in,  188. 

Graphs,  110. 

Group  conferences,  186. 

Group  study,  185. 

Habits,  transforming  technique  into, 
11 ;  adolescence  the  supreme  period 
of  formation  of,  60;  practice  to 
form  right,  in  teachers,  88;  of 
teaching,  should  become  auto- 
matic, 88,  89;  of  teaching,  break- 
ing up  incorrect,  89-92;  the  body 
of,  that  should  result  from  the 
study  of  a  course,  120;  of  studying 
intensively,  124;  of  skill,  specific, 
for  different  subjects,  170;  of 
study,  186. 

Hectographing,  103. 

High  schools,  unprofessional  charac- 
ter of  teaching  in,  6. 

Imitation,  teaching  learned  by,  86, 
87. 

Independence  in  the  teacher,  93;  su- 
pervision to  develop,  194. 

Individual  conferences,  185,  186. 

Induction  and  deduction,  76,  77. 

Initiative,  89,  93;  supervision  to  de- 
velop, 194,  195. 

Instincts  of  adolescents,  importance 
of  knowledge  of,  60,  61. 

Instruction.   See  Courses. 

Instructions  to  teachers,  printed,  a 
good  device,  97;  examples  of,  98- 
102;  a  time-saving  device,  102; 
compared  with  oral  instructions, 
103;  compared  with  hectographed 


or  mimeographed  instructions; 
103;  effectiveness  of,  104,  105; 
usability  of,  105,  106;  no  con- 
fusion due  to  use  of,  107;  a  gen- 
eral device  of  the  material  sort, 
109. 

Intellectual  devices,  109,  110. 

Intelligence  tests  for  teachers,  216. 

Interests  of  pupils  should  be  caught 
at  their  crest,  68,  69. 

Judgment-forming,  146,  147. 

Kansas,  University  of,  weekly  lesson 

plan  of,  174,  175. 
Kindergarten,  the,  39. 

Laboratory  and  recitation  work, 
amount  of  time  to  be  devoted  to 
each,  124,  125. 

Language  texts,  supplementary  ma- 
terial needed  with,  133. 

Latin,  example  of  emergency  dem- 
onstration teaching  in,  159,  160. 

Lectures,  110;  outline  for  directed 
teaching,  as  to,  166,  167. 

Lesson  assignment  should  be  clear 
and  definite,  182. 

Lesson-plans,  daily,  108,  109,  173, 
176;  form  for,  108,  109;  weekly, 
172-75;  should  be  given  by  super- 
visor and  followed  by  teacher,  171, 
172;  value  of  daily,  176,  177;  do 
not  lead  to  mechanical  work,  177, 
178;  clarify  thinking  for  the  be- 
ginner, 178;  should  be  definitenesa 
in,  220;  for  records  of  teacher's 
efficiency,  252. 

Lessons,  time  to  be  devoted  to  prep« 
aration  of,  123,  124,  180. 

Make-up  work,  186. 

Management  of  classroom  and  o! 
pupils,  222,  223. 

Manual  arts,  40. 

Manual  training  courses,  have  some- 
times been  too  theoretical,  69. 

Marks,  the  range  of,  129;  assigning, 
211,  212. 

Material,  conservation  of,  in  devices, 
102;  supplementary,  133,  134; 


INDEX 


271 


notebooks,  134.  See  Subject- 
matter. 

Material  devices,  109,  110. 

Mathematics,  how  it  may  be  social- 
ized, 71;  much  supplementary  drill 
material  needed  in,  133. 

Meetings,  teachers',  242,  243. 

Memorization,  184. 

Mental  development  to  be  aimed  at, 
53;  through  experiences,  61-63. 

Method,  first  principle  of,  super- 
visor and  teachers  must  have 
common  knowledge  and  hold  com- 
mon points  of  view,  35-37;  de- 
nned, 76;  principles  of,  defined, 
76;  problems  in,  76,  77;  second 
principle  of)  that  one  learns  to 
teach  by  teaching,  83-89;  third 
principle  of,  incorrect  habits  of 
teaching  can  be  broken  up  under 
supervision,  89-92;  fourth  prin- 
ciple of,  teacher  must  be  given  op- 
portunity to  do  regular  work,  93; 
outline  for  directed  teaching,  as 
to,  164;  mastery  of  principles  of, 
219. 

Mimeographing,  103. 

Nervous  system  of  adolescents,  57. 

Notebooks,  134. 

Notes,  should  be  taken  to  estimate 
teacher's  efficiency,  204,  205,  253, 
260,  261;  outline  for,  for  super- 
visor, 206-09. 

Observation,    of   teaching,    85,    86; 

of  demonstration  lessons,  138-42; 

directed,  of  teaching,  142-53,  see 

Directed  observation;  to  evaluate 

teaching,  153-57. 
Oral  and  written  work,  relative  time 

to  be  given  to,  in  recitation,  179. 
Oread  Training  School,  example  of 

general     instructions     to     senior 

teachers  in,  98-100. 

Periods,  shorter  or  longer,  organiza- 
tion of  subjects  into,  121-23;  class, 
length  and  number  of,  123;  super- 
vised study,  184;  double,  184. 

Permanency  of  devices,  97,  103. 


Physiological  characteristics,  of 
childhood,  41 ;  of  secondary-school 
pupils,  54. 

Physiological  disturbances  of  ado- 
lescents, 57-59. 

Plans  for  lessons.     See  Lesson-plans. 

Plans  for  supervisory  work,  260. 

Preparation  of  lessons,  time  to  be 
devoted  to,  123,  124,  180. 

Presentation  and  drill,  relative  time 
to  be  devoted  to,  132,  133. 

Primary  school,  39. 

Principles,  definite,  have  been  lack- 
ing in  training  of  supervision,  17, 
18. 

Printed  forms,  instructions.  See 
Forms,  Instructions. 

Problems  in  teaching  and  method, 
76,  77. 

Professional  training,  lack  of,  4,  5. 

Promoting,  value  of  tests  in,  188. 

Psychological  approach  to  subject- 
matter,  51,  52. 

Psychological  characteristics,  of 
childhood,  41,  42;  of  secondary- 
school  pupils,  54,  55;  of  adoles- 
cents, ways  of  capitalizing  knowl- 
edge of,  60,  61. 

Public  school,  and  training  school, 
compared  as  regards  formality  of 
organization,  14,  15;  curriculum- 
making  in,  24,  25. 

Pupils,  of  the  elementary  school,  41— 
43;  dominant  physiological  char- 
acteristics of,  41;  dominant  psy- 
chological characteristics  of,  41, 
42;  relation  of  characteristics  to 
schoolroom  procedure,  42;  social 
status  of,  43. 

Of  the  secondary  school,  54-73; 
importance  of  knowledge  of  traita 
and  tendencies  of,  54;  physiologi- 
cal characteristics  of,  54;  psycho- 
logical characteristics  of,  54,  55; 
proper  attitude  of  school  toward 
erratic  behavior  in,  63-66;  should 
be  allowed  to  choose  freely  erratic 
conduct,  63,  64;  door  of  opportun- 
ity not  to  be  closed  to,  64,  65;  im- 
portance of  frank  dealings  with, 
66,  67;  religious  and  emotional 


272 


INDEX 


tendency  of,  67,  68;  interests  of, 
should  be  caught  at  the  crest,  68, 
69;  social  status  and  outlook  of,  56; 
effects  of  combined  physical  con- 
ditions on  development  of,  57,  58; 
embarrassments  of,  58,  59;  effect 
upon,  of  development  of  sex  or- 
gans, 59 ;  are  in  the  supreme  period 
of  habit  formation,  60;  instinctive 
backgrounds  of,  60,  61;  to  be  re- 
garded more  than  the  subjects  of 
instruction,  69,  70. 

The  class  of,  for  whom  the  course 
is  pitched,  126;  the  classes  of,  to 
whom  the  course  is  open  for  full  or 
fractional  credit,  126,  127;  the 
items  that  determine  their  record 
and  credit  in  a  course,  127-29; 
management  of,  222,  223. 

Questionnaire,  for  securing  judg- 
ment of  teacher,  253. 

Questions,  outline  for  directed  teach- 
ing, as  to,  165,  166;  on  quiz  pa- 
pers, 179. 

Quiz  papers,  uniformity  in,  134;  pro- 
cedure in  grading,  179. 

Quizzes,  time  for,  179;  number  and 
character  of  questions  in,  179. 

Bating  of  teachers,  should  be  sub- 
ject to  definite  standards,  215; 
suggested  outline  for,  216-30;  in- 
tellectual ability,  216;  general 
scholarship,  216,  217;  special 
scholarship,  217;  ability  to  express 
thoughts,  218;  voice,  218;  teach- 
ing ability,  218-22;  master  of  the 
principles  of  method,  219;  intelli- 
gence and  resourcefulness  in  se- 
lecting and  adapting  devices,  210, 
220;  definiteness  in  lesson  plan- 
ning and  skill  in  following  the 
plan,  220;  skill  and  reliability  of 
technique,  220,  221;  ability  to  se- 
cure desired  results,  221,  222;  abil- 
ity to  test  and  grade  definitely 
and  accurately  the  work  of  the 
pupils,  222 ;  ability  to  manage  and 
discipline,  222,  223;  a  philosophy 
of  school  discipline,  223-25;  per- 


sonal appearance,  225;  qualities  of 
leadership,  226;  professional  atti- 
tude, 227 ;  type  of  school  and  com- 
munity in  which  the  teacher  will 
be  most  efficient,  227,  228;  the 
critical  point,  228. 

Reading  tests,  187. 

Recitations,  socialized,  70,  71;  co- 
operation necessary  for  proper 
arranging  of,  75;  the  device  of  a 
plan  for  daily,  105,  106;  and  out- 
side study,  relation  between  times 
devoted  to,  124;  and  laboratory 
work,  amount  of  time  to  be  de- 
voted to  each,  124,  125;  amount  of 
work  to  be  assigned  to,  129;  and 
the  use  of  textbooks  in,  131,  132; 
taken  up  and  conducted  in  part  by 
supervisor,  157;  relative  time  to 
be  given  to  oral  and  to  written 
work  in,  179;  means  of  direc*- 
ing  study  of  the  pupil,  182-84; 
should  deal  with  the  subject-mat- 
ter assigned  and  in  the  way  indi- 
cated, 182;  should  keep  up  with 
assignments,  182,  183;  study  dur- 
ing, 183,  184. 

Records  should  be  based  on  definite 
evidence,  258,  259. 

Reference  works,  170. 

Relationships,  proper  teaching,  of 
teacher  and  supervisor  to  pupils, 
80,  81. 

Religious  tendency  of  adolescence, 
67,  68. 

Reports  by  pupils,  134. 

Reviews,  183. 

Rural  schools,  composition  of  the 
teaching  force  of,  4;  in  some 
states,  attacking  problem  of  su- 
pervision, 6. 

Scales  and  tests,  training  in  use  of 
standard,  187,  188. 

Scholarship,  general,  of  teachers, 
216,  217;  special,  of  teachers,  217. 

Schools.  '  See  Elementary,  Rural, 
Secondary;  Training. 

Sciences,  little  supplementary  ma- 
terial needed  in,  133. 

Score  card.   See  Form. 


INDEX 


273 


Secondary  education,  to  define  sub- 
jects in  curriculum  in  terms  of 
definitely  recognized  values,  50; 
one  of  the  problems  of,  to  replace 
spontaneous  behavior  with  be- 
havior based  upon  meditation, 
65;  has  been  too  theoretical  and 
not  sufficiently  practical,  68,  69. 

Secondary  schools,  composition  of 
the  teaching  force  of,  3,  4;  particu- 
lar basis  for  cooperative  teaching 
in,  45-74;  the  purpose  of,  45-47; 
the  place  of,  47,  48;  the  curriculum 
of,  50,  51 ;  the  curriculum,  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  means  to  an  end,  52, 
53;  the  student,  not  the  subject- 
matter,  in,  the  important  thing, 
53;  the  pupils  of,  54-73,  see  Pupils; 
should  be  stable,  though  flexible, 
62,  63;  proper  attitude  of,  toward 
erratic  behavior  of  pupils,  63-66; 
should  provide  social  opportuni- 
ties, 70,  71;  general  basis  for  co- 
operative teaching  in,  75-82. 

Silent-reading  tests,  187. 

Skills  standardized,  and  standard- 
ized tests,  188,  189. 

Social  opportunities,  should  be  pro- 
vided by  school,  70,  71. 

Social  status,  of  children,  43;  of  sec- 
ondary-school pupils,  56. 

Socialized  recitations,  70,  71. 

Socializing  subject-matter,  71-73. 

Standard  tests  and  scales,  training  in 
use  of,  187,  188;  and  unstandard- 
ized,  188;  knowledge  of  their  use 
is  necessary,  189,  190;  uses  to 
which  they  can  be  put,  189. 

Standards,  teaching,  should  be  un- 
derstanding between  supervisor 
and  teacher  as  to,  80;  necessary  for 
measuring  supervisory  efficiency, 
231,  233. 

Student,  thinking  in  terms  of  the,  53. 

Studies  of  secondary  school,  purpose 
of,  52,  53. 

Study,  outside,  amount  of  time  to  be 
devoted  to,  123,  124;  supervised, 
181-90,  see  Supervised  study ;  dur- 
ing the  recitation,  183,  184;  su- 
pervised period  of,  184;  group,  185; 


conferences,  individual,  185;  lit- 
erature on,  should  be  put  in  hands 
of  pupils,  186. 

Subject-matter,  the  psychological 
approach  to,  51,  52;  though  not 
sacred,  should  be  stable,  62;  the 
pupil  not  to  be  sacrificed  to,  69, 
70;  the  socializing  of,  71-73;  of 
courses,  should  be  put  in  perma- 
nent printed  form  by  the  super- 
visor, 117;  teacher  should  know 
why  it  was  organized  and  is  being 
taught,  117,  118;  statement  should 
be  made  of  changes  going  on  in, 
118,  119;  unit  of  credit  in,  119-30, 
173;  the  problem  of  scope  of,  119; 
the  relative  amount  of  each  type 
of,  119,  120,  132,  133;  content,  and 
formal,  120,  132,  133;  the  funda- 
mental content,  120;  to  be  learned 
temporarily  and  to  be  learned  per- 
manently, 184.  See  Courses. 

Success  of  teacher,  considerations  in 
estimating,  214, 215.  See  Teachers. 

Superintendent,  principles  by  which 
he  can  measure  supervisory  effi- 
ciency, 234-38;  supervisory  activ- 
ities of,  239;  should  have  definite 
goals,  240;  should  give  account  of 
duties  done  and  time  spent  in  do- 
ing them,  242;  consideration  of  the 
supervisory  activities  of,  242-45. 

Supervised  study,  181-90;  what  is 
meant  by,  181;  the  lesson  assign- 
ment, 182 ;  the  recitation  demands, 
182,  183;  study  during  the  recita- 
tion, 183,  184;  supervised  study 
periods,  184;  group  study,  185; 
make-up  work,  186;  literature  on 
study,  186;  conferences,  186; 
training  in  use  of  standard  tests 
and  scales,  187,  188;  value  of  tests 
in  grading  and  promoting,  188; 
standardized  tests  and  standard- 
ized skills,  188,  189;  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  uses  of  standard  tests  is 
necessary,  189,  190. 

Supervising  principal,  must  some- 
times do  supervisory  work,  30; 
measuring  supervisory  work  of, 
245,  246. 


274 


INDEX 


Supervision,  administrators  should 
be  trained  in,  8,  9;  for  the  training 
school,  needed,  14;  the  greatest 
weakness  of,  17;  training  for,  de- 
tails vs.  generalities  in,  18;  super- 
visors measure  the  efficiency  of, 
29,  30;  the  goal  of,  29,  30;  plans  of, 
for  administrator,  30,  31;  the  pur- 
pose of,  81,  82;  must  begin  before 
the  teacher  enters  the  classroom, 
163;  the  purpose  of,  193, 194;  to  de- 
velop independence  and  efficiency, 
194,  195;  the  technique  of,  should 
be  constructive,  195,  196;  the 
technique  of,  should  be  capable  of 
modification,  196;  the  technique 
of,  should  be  economical,  196,  197; 
rate  of  procedure  in,  209 ;  the  need 
of  evaluating,  231;  efficiency  of, 
taking  stock  as  to,  231-33;  two 
steps  involved  in  measuring  effi- 
ciency of,  233 ;  principles  involved 
in  measuring  efficiency  of,  234-38; 
programs  for  measuring  efficiency 
of,  238-63;  exercised  by  super- 
intendent, 239 ;  superintendent 
should  have  definite  goals,  240, 
241;  types  of  data  that  will  be 
accepted  as  proof  of  efficiency 
of,  for  superintendent,  241,  242; 
sources  from  which  valid  data  may 
be  secured,  for  superintendent, 
242;  considerations  of  activities  of 
superintendent,  242-45;  measuring 
work  of  assistant  superintendent, 
supervising  principal,  and  build- 
ing principal  in,  245,  246;  measur- 
ing work  of  special  supervisors  in, 
246;  special  supervisor  should 
have  definite  goals,  246,  247 ;  types 
of  evidence  that  indicate  efficiency 
of  special  supervisor,  247;  sources 
of  evidence  for  efficiency  of  special 
superintendent,  249;  time  spent 
by  special  supervisor  in,  249 ;  qual- 
ity of  work  of  special  supervisor  in, 
249;  of  supervisor  in  training- 
school,  250-52;  devices  for  secur- 
ing objective  data  concerning, 
252-55;  examples  of  helpfulness 
in,  255-57;  may  sometimes  hinder, 


267,  258;  definite  plans  of,  should 
be  furnished  by  supervisor,  260; 
qualitative  study  of,  261,  262. 
Supervisors,  trained,  reasons  for 
need  of,  3-7;  need  of  training 
schools  for,  7,  8;  must  master 
technique,  15,  16;  two  questions 
involved  in  the  problem  of  train- 
ing, 16,  17;  should  aim  to  bring 
about  cooperation  between  them- 
selves and  the  teachers,  23,  24; 
have  the  duty  of  selecting  and  or- 
ganizing the  subject-matter  of 
courses,  24,  25;  should  teach  for 
purposes  of  experimentation  and 
demonstration,  25,  26;  direct  sys- 
tematic observation  of  expert  and 
inexpert  teaching  performances, 
26,  27;  direct  teaching  activities, 
28;  check  up  pupils'  progress,  28; 
measure  progress  and  efficiency  of 
teachers,  28,  29;  measure  the  effi- 
ciency of  supervision,  29,  30; 
should  work  out  list  of  utilizations 
of  traits  and  tendencies,  43;  and 
teachers,  should  agree  on  definite 
types  of  social  situations  offered 
by  the  school,  43;  work  in  deter- 
mining the  place  of  the  secondary 
school,  48;  and  teachers,  should  be 
in  harmony  as  regards  conduct  of 
pupils,  66;  should  be  in  harmony 
with  teachers  as  regards  lessons 
and  recitations,  75;  should  agree 
with  teachers  as  to  teaching  pro- 
cedure and  teaching  standards, 
also  as  to  teaching  relationships, 
79-81;  direct  teaching  in  imagina- 
tion according  to  their  standards  of 
correct  teaching,  84 ;  as  directors  of 
teaching,  87,  88;  work  of,  in  keep- 
ing teacher  from  incorrect  acts, 
91;  work  of,  in  breaking  bad  hab- 
its, 92;  work  of,  as  sympathetic 
visitors,  93 ;  should  put  in  printed 
form  their  views  of  educational  sit- 
uation, 114,  115;  should  put  in  per- 
manent printed  form  the  subject- 
matter  of  courses,  117;  should 
give  instructions  concerning  text- 
books, 130;  must  consider  the 


INDEX 


three  factors  involved  in  teaching, 
163;  exist  for  the  sake  of  teachers 
and  pupils,  193,  194;  should  en- 
deavor to  make  teachers  inde- 
pendent and  efficient,  194;  must 
vi»t  the  teacher  at  his  work,  199; 
the  question  of  when  they  should 
begin  visiting,  199-201 ;  manner  of 
their  entering  the  classroom,  201, 
202 ;  their  position  in  the  classroom, 
202,  203;  their  manner  of  leaving 
the  classroom,  203,  204;  should 
make  notes  on  the  recitation,  204- 
06;  manner  in  which  they  should 
deliver  the  written  notes,  205; 
should  always  do  their  visiting 
openly,  205,  206;  outline  for  notes 
of,  206-09;  special,  measuring  su- 
pervisory activities  of,  246;  defin- 
ite goals  set  up  for  them  to  attain, 
246,  247;  types  of  evidence  that 
indicate  their  efficiency,  247; 
sources  of  evidence  for  efficiency 
of,  249;  time  spent  by,  249;  qual- 
ity of  work  of,  250;  in  training- 
school,  measuring  supervisory  ac- 
tivities of,  250-52;  ways  in  which 
teacher  may  be  helped  by,  255-57 ; 
may  sometimes  hinder,  257,  258; 
should  themselves  furnish  data  to 
administrator,  259, 260 ;  should  fur- 
nish definite  plans  of  supervision, 
260;  notes  on  visitation  to  be  made 
by,  260,  261;  reports  of  confer- 
ences to  be  furnished  by,  261; 
must  be  seen  at  work  to  be  judged 
properly,  261,  262. 

Supplementary  materials  to  text- 
book, 133,  134. 

Synthesis,  76. 

Tact,  61. 

Teachers,  need  of  training  schools 
for,  7,  8;  trained,  should  trans- 
form technique  into  habits,  11; 
why  they  fail  in  using  technique, 
11,  12;  must  pass  through  stages 
of  habit  formation,  12,  13;  cooper- 
ation between  supervisor  and, 
necessary,  23,  24;  progress  and 
efficiency  of,  measured  by  super- 


visor, 28,  29;  not  to  be  worried 
over  erratic  interpretations  of  their 
behavior  [toward  pupils,  64,  65; 
and  supervisor.'should  be  in  har- 
mony as  regards  conduct  of  pupils, 
66;  should  be  frank  with  pupils, 
66,  67;  should  not  try  to  play  upon 
the  credulity  of  pupils,  67;  should 
be  in  harmony  with  supervisor  as 
regards  lessons  and  recitations, 
75;  should  agree  with  supervisor 
as  to  teaching  procedure,  and 
teaching  standards,  also  as  to 
teaching  relationships,  79-81 ;  and 
supervisor,  unite  on  anticipatory 
teaching,  83,  84;  supervision  valid 
for  keeping  them  from  incorrect 
acts,  91;  general  instructions  to 
senior,  98-100;  instructions  to 
regular,  100-02;  saving  the  time 
of,  a  device  for,  102 ;  should  have 
statement  in  printed  form  of  sub- 
ject-matter of  courses,  117;  should 
know  why  subject-matter  was  or- 
ganized and  is  being  taught,  117. 
118;  differences  between,  172; 
should  seek  service  of  supervisor, 
194;  visited  by  supervisor  in  class- 
room, 199-206;  work  of,  criticized 
by  supervisor,  206-09;  considera- 
tions in  estimating  success  of,  214, 
215;  the  rating  of,  should  be  sub- 
ject to  definite  standards,  215; 
suggested  outline  for  rating  of, 
216-30;  intellectual  ability,  216; 
general  scholarship,  216,  217;  spe- 
cial scholarship,  217;  ability  to 
express  thoughts,  218;  quality  of 
voice,  218;  teaching  ability,  218- 
22;  mastery  of  the  principles  of 
method,  219;  intelligence  and  re- 
sourcefulness in  selecting  and 
adapting  devices,  219,  220;  defin- 
iteness  of  lesson  planning  and  skill 
in  following  the  plan,  220;  skill 
and  reliability  of  technique,  220, 
221;  ability  to  secure  desired  re- 
sults, 221,  222;  ability  to  test  and 
grade  definitely  and  accurately 
the  work  of  the  pupils,  222;  ability 
to  manage  and  discipline,  222,  223; 


376 


INDEX 


a  philosophy  of  school  discipline, 
223-25;  personal  appearance,  225; 
qualities  of  leadership,  226;  pro- 
fessional attitude,  227;  type  of 
school  and  community  in  which 
they  will  be  most  efficient,  227, 
228;  the  critical  point,  228;  judg- 
ment of,  concerning  course  of 
study,  248;  devices  for  securing 
objective  data  as  to  efficiency  of, 
252-54;  form  of  questionnaire  for 
securing  judgment  of,  253,  254; 
ways  in  which  supervisor  may 
help,  255-57;  may  be  hindered  by 
supervisor,  257,  258;  meetings, 
242,  243. 

Teaching,  cooperative,  laying  the 
basis  for,  23,  24 ;  a  cooperative  en- 
terprise, 35-37;  problems  in,  76, 
77;  to  be  learned  by  teaching,  83; 
anticipatory,  83,  84;  anticipatory, 
the  value  of,  84,  85;  observation 
of,  85,  86,  142-53;  learned  by  imi- 
tation, 86,  87;  directed,  87,  163- 
81;  teachers  should  endeavor  to 
form  right  habits  of,  88 ;  habits  of, 
should  become  automatic,  88,  89; 
breaking  up  incorrect  habits  of, 
89,  90;  initiative  and  independ- 
ence in,  89,  93;  demonstration, 
138-42;  observation  to  evaluate, 
153-57 ;  emergency  demonstra- 
tion, 157-62;  three  fundamental 
factors  involved  in,  163;  lack  of 
definiteness  one  of  chief  causes  of 
poor,  177.  See  Cooperative  teach- 
ing. 

Teaching  force  of  schools,  composi- 
tion of,  3,  4;  lack  of  professional 
training  in,  4-6. 

Teaching  procedure,  agreements  as 
to,  by  supervisor  and  teacher,  79. 

Teaching  relationships,  proper,  of 
supervisor  and  teachers  to  pupils, 
80,  81. 

Teaching  standards,  80. 

Teaching  technique,  78,  79. 

Technique,  the  formality  of,  9-11; 
transforming,  into  habits,  11;  why 
teachers  fail  in  using,  11,  12;  su- 
pervisors must  master,  15,  16; 


teaching,  78,  79;  principles  by 
which  the  determination  of,  should 
be  guided,  79;  one  purpose  of 
demonstration  teaching  to  show 
good,  138,  139;  in  demonstration 
lesson  in  elementary  arithmetic, 
141;  in  demonstration  lesson  in 
plane  geometry,  142 ;  in  evaluation 
observation  outline,  154;  in  out- 
line for  directed  teaching,  164, 
165, 167-70;  of  supervision,  should 
develop  proper  kind  of  initiative 
and  independence  in  teachers,  195; 
of  supervision,  should  be  construc- 
tive, capable  of  modification,  and 
economical,  195-97;  selected  forms 
of,  199-213;  and  devices,  199;  vis- 
iting the  teacher  at  his  work,  199- 
206;  criticizing  the  work  of  the 
teacher,  206-09;  conferences  and 
checking  up  work,  209-12;  skill 
and  reliability  of,  220,  221. 

Tests  and  scales,  training  in  use  of 
standard,*! 87,  188;  standard  and 
unstandardized,  value  of,  in  grad- 
ing and  promoting,  188;  standard- 
ized, and  standardized  skills,  188, 
189;  knowledge  of  their  use  is 
necessary,  189,  190;  uses  to  which 
they  can  be  put,  189 ;  intelligence, 
for  teacher  rating,  216;  teaching 
ability  evidenced  by  devising  fair 
tests,  222. 

Textbooks,  instructions  should  be 
given  regarding,  130;  standards  for 
judging  the  usability  of,  131;  in- 
structions as  to  the  use  of,  131, 
132;  use  of,  in  recitations,  131, 132; 
character  of,  determines  in  some 
measure  amount  of  supplemen- 
tary material  needed,  133;  outline 
for  directed  teaching,  as  to,  169, 
170. 

Time,  of  the  supervisor,  saving  the, 
97;  of  the  teacher,  saving  the, 
102;  required  in  study  preparation 
outside  of  class,  123,  124;  to  be 
given  to  oral  and  to  written  work 
in  recitation,  179;  for  quizzes.  179. 

Training,  in  supervision  for  admin- 
istrators, 8,  9;  there  is  a  formal 


INDEX 


277 


stage  in,  12,  13;  conduces  to  effi- 
ciency, 13,  14;  of  supervisors,  two 
problems  involved  in,  16,  17;  for 
supervision,  details  vs.  generalities 
in,  18;  in  use  of  standard  tests  and 
scales,  187,  188. 

Training  schools,  for  teachers  and 
supervisors,  7,  8;  criticized  for  be- 
ing too  formal,  9-11;  and  public 
schools,  compared  as  regards  for- 
mality of  organization,  14,  15;  cur- 
riculum-making in,  24,  25;  justi- 
fied agencies  in  educating  teachers, 
91 ;  comparison  of  city  schools  with, 
in  the  matter  of  bad  habits,  92; 
example  of  set  of  instructions  for, 
98-100;  measuring  activities  of 
supervisor  in,  250-52. 

Unit  of  credit,  consideration  of,  119- 


30;  scope  of  subject-matter  of, 
1 19 ;  relative  amount  of  each  type 
of  subject-matter  of,  119,  120;  the 
fundamental  content  subject-mat- 
ter of,  120;  the  habits  its  subject- 
matter  should  form,  120;  value  of 
weekly  lesson  plans  in  determin- 
ing, 173. 

Visitation,  notes  on,  260,  261. 
Visiting  the  teacher  at  his  work,  199- 

206. 
Voice,  good  quality  of,  necessary  for 

teacher,  218. 

Weekly   lesson    plans.     See   Lesson 

plans. 
Written  and  oral  work,  relative  time 

to    be    given    to,    in    recitation, 

179. 


RIVERSIDE  TEXTBOOKS 
IN  EDUCATION 


Edited  by  ELL  WOOD  P.  CUBBERLEY,  Dean  of  the  Department  of  Edu 
cation,  Ldand  Stanford  Junior  University. 

History  •/  Educatitn 

CUBBEKLEY  :  The  History  of  Education 
CUBBERLEY:  Readings  in  the  History  of  Education 
CUBBEKLEY:  A  Brief  History  of  Education 
CUBBEKLEY:  Public  Education  in  the  United  States 


Gtneral  Educational  Theory 

ALMACK  AMD  LANG:  Problems  of  the  Teaching  Profession 

CHAPMAN  AND  COUNTS:  Principles  of  Education 

CUBBERLEY:  Rural  Life  and  Education 

GESELL:  The  Pre-School  Child 

INGLIS:  Principles  of  Secondary  Education 

MCCRACKEN  AND  LAMB:  Occupational  Information  in  the  Elementary 

School 

SMITH:  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology 
SNEDDEN:  Problems  of  Secondary  Education 
WALLIN:  The  Education  of  Handicapped  Children 


oloa  and  Child  Stnth 

AVT.RTI.L:  Elements  of  Educational  Psychology 

AVERTLL:  Psychology  for  Normal  Schools 

EDWARDS:  Psychology  of  Elementary  Education 

FREEMAN:  Experimental  Education 

FREEMAN:  How  Children  Learn 

FREEMAN:  The  Psychology  of  the  Common  Branches 

PECHSTEIN  AND  MCGREGOR:  Psychology  of  the  Junior  High  School 

Pupil 
WADDLE:  An  Introduction  to  Child  Psychology 

Healthful  Ttachint  anJ  Htaltkfrl  Sckoott 

A  YVES,  WII.IIAMS.  WOOD:  Healthful  Schools.    How  to  Build,  Equip, 

and  Maintain  Them 

HOAC  AND  TERIIAN:  Health  Work  in  the  Schools 
:  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

BOSTON  NBW  YORK          CHICAGO  SAN  FRANCISCO 

2401  • 


Edited  by  ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBERLEY,  Dean  of  the  Department  of  Edu- 
cation, Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

Administration  and  Supervision 

BRIGGS:  The  Junior  High  School 

CUBBERLEY:  The  Principal  and  His  School 

CUBBERLEY:  Public  School  Administration 

NUTT:  The  Supervision  of  Instruction 

PERRY:  Discipline  as  a  School  Problem 

PITTENGER:  An  Introduction  to  Public  School  Finance 

RUGG:  Primer  of  Graphics  and  Statistics  for  Teachers 

SEARS:  Classroom  Organization  and  Control 

SEARS:  The  School  Survey 

SHOWALTER:  A  Handbook  for  Rural  School  Officers 

WILLIAMS:  Graphic  Methods  in  Education 

Methods 

ALMACK:  Education  for  Citizenship 

BOLENIUS:  Teaching  Literature  hi  the  Grammar  Grades  and  High 

School 

KENDALL  AND  MIRICK  :  How  to  Teach  the  Fundamental  Subjects 
KENDALL  AND  MIRICK:  How  to  Teach  the  Special  Subjects 
MARTZ  AND  KINNEMAN:  Social  Science  for  Teachers 
MINOR:  Principles  of  Teaching  Practically  Applied  _ 
NEWCOMB:  Modern  Methods  of  Teaching  Arithmetic 
STONE:  Silent  and  Oral  Reading 
STOEMZAND:  Progressive  Methods  of  Teaching 
THOMAS  :  The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Secondary  School 
THOMAS:  Training  for  Effective  Study 

TRAFTON:  The  Teaching  of  Science  hi  the  Elementary  School 
WOOFTER:  Teaching  in  Rural  Schools 

'Educational  Tests  and  Measurement* 

HINES:  A  Guide  to  Educational  Measurements 

MONROE:  An  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of  Educational  Measure- 
ments 

MONROE:  Measuring  the  Results  of  Teaching 

MONROE,  DEVOSS^AND  KELLY:  Educational  Tests  and  Measurements. 
Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition. 

RUGG:  Statistical  Methods  Applied  to  Education 

TERMAN:  The  Intelligence  of  School  Children 

TERMAN:  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence 
Test  Material  for  use  with  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence 
Record  Booklets.   Sold  only  in  packages  of  25. 
Condensed  Guide  for  the  Binet-Simon  Intelligence  Tests 
Abbreviated  Filing  Record  Cards.   25  in  package 

HOUGHTON   MIFFLIN   COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK          CHICAGO  SAN  FRANCISCO 

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